Verification of fluidized bed electrical capacitance tomography measurements with a fibre optic probe

Previous studies aimed at determining the spatial accuracy of electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) have employed phantoms placed within the ECT measurement space. No previous studies have compared ECT with a second independent measurement technique in an operating fluidized bed. In the present work, radial voidage profiles have been measured with ECT in the 0.14-m I.D. riser of a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and in a bubbling fluidized bed with a 0.19-m I.D. The dynamic and time-averaged radial voidage profiles have been compared with measurements taken with a fibre optic probe in the same riser and in a slightly narrower (0.15-m I.D.) bubbling fluidized bed. In spite of the intrusiveness of the latter technique, the time-averaged radial profiles in the CFB riser fall within 10% of each other when the CFB is operated at high-flux conditions that lead to a very dense wall region. Iterative reconstruction of the ECT images is not needed in this case. Similar agreement is found between the two techniques in the bubbling fluidized bed, but off-line iterative image reconstruction is clearly necessary in this fluidization regime. These results suggest that ECT, which is often described as a tomographic imaging technique with low spatial resolution, can in fact provide semi-quantitative time-averaged images of the cross-section of fluidized beds of diameter comparable to or less than that used here.     

Modelling of fluidized bed reactors—IV: Combustion of carbon particles

A model consisting of bubble and emulsion phases is used to describe the combustion of carbon particles in a non-isothermal continuous fluidized bed reactor. The particles are burned by two heterogeneous reactions: oxidation by oxygen and reduction of carbon dioxide. Both reactions produce carbon monoxide which is oxidized by incoming air. The complete set of mass and heat conservation equations are presented. They are simplified for the case in which no oxidation of carbon monoxide is considered within the bubbles and when the rate of the heterogeneous reactions at the surface of the particles is much faster than the rate of diffusion of reactants. Several steady state computations are presented and the effect of some of the operational variables is discussed. In most cases ranges of variables were found for which there are multiple solutions. In particular, it was shown that the interchange coefficients between the bubble and emulsion phase have the strongest effect upon multiplicity. Some sufficient conditions for the existence of a unique steady state are derived.     

Modelling of fluidized bed reactors—II: Uniform catalyst temperature and concentration

A model based on the simple two phase theory of fluidization including the catalyst particles as a third phase has been developed for a nonisothermal fluidized bed catalytic reactor with continuous circulation of catalyst particles. The dilute phase is assumed to be in plug flow, the emulsion phase gas is considered to be perfectly mixed and the particles are assumed to be perfectly mixed and uniform.Exact criteria for uniqueness and multiplicity of the steady state solutions are presented and some conclusions derived therefrom. Several examples illustrating the influence of some parameters on the steady state multiplicity are reported. The steady states are analyzed for local asymptatic stability using Liapunov's direct method, but the sufficient conditions for stability are found to be rather conservative.Numerical examples illustrating the transient behavior of the system are presented, and it has been found that the initial temperature of the catalyst particles is a predominant factor in determining which steady state will be approached.     

Modelling of fluidized bed reactors—VI(a): An isothermal bed with stochastic bubbles

A two-phase stochastic isothermal fluidized bed reactor model with first order reaction in the dense phase is developed to investigate the significance of the fluctuating nature of fluidized beds on reactor performance. Several stochastic processes are employed as the overall mass transfer coefficient between phases. Analytical moment solutions are obtained for white noise coefficients while hybrid computer simulation was used for correlated stochastic coefficients. Results indicate that a gamma distributed coefficient is preferred over white noise and Gaussian correlated coefficients. When compared with the deterministic model, randomness in the mass transfer coefficient is seen to lead to a decrease in reactor performance. Deviation from the deterministic model increases with increasing variance and decreasing fluctuation frequency of the correlated stochastic coefficients.     

Modelling of fluidized bed reactors—VI(b): The nonisothermal bed with stochastic bubbles

Two stochastic nonisothermal fluidized bed reactor models are developed to investigate the significance of the fluctuating nature of fluidized beds on reactor performance. Fluctuating bubble size distributions within the bed are simulated by stochastic mass and heat transfer coefficients. Results of hybrid computer simulations indicate that randomness can enhance or inhibit reactor performance depending on the operating parameters of the nonisothermal model. Bubble and dense phase concentration statistics are fairly similar to those of corresponding isothermal models because dense phase temperatures are relatively insensitive to transfer coefficient fluctuations due to the high dense phase beat capacity. However, the corresponding stochastic isothermal models predict decreases in conversion with increasing variance in the transfer coefficients for all operating conditions. Results indicate that a deterministic system with two stable steady states may have fewer stable random stationary solutions. The existence of the stationary states is dependent on fluctuation frequency and variance of the transfer coefficients.     

Gas-solid contacting in a two-dimensional fluidized bed containing mobile internals: Non-reactive tracer studies

The effect of 50.8 mm diameter disc shaped mobile internals (MIs) on gas-solid contacting was studied in a large two-dimensional fluidized bed by means of non-reactive tracers. MIs were found to improve substantially the mass transfer coefficient between the bubble and dense phases. However, they also increased the gas dispersion in the dense phase.     

Modelling of fluidized bed reactors—V Combustion of carbon particles—an extension

The problem of the burning of carbon particles in a fluidized bed in which oxygen and carbon dioxide react at the surface of the particles and the carb     

Radioisotope tracer study in trickle bed reactors

The residence time distribution (RTD) of liquid phase in trickle bed reactors has been measured for air‐water system using radioisotope tracer technique. Experiments were carried out in a glass column of internal diameter of 0.152 m packed with glass beads and actual catalyst particles of two different shapes. From the measured RTD curves, mean residence time of liquid was calculated and used to estimate liquid holdup. The axial dispersion model was used to simulate the experimental data and estimate mixing index, ie. Peclet number. The effect of liquid and gas flow rates on total liquid holdup and Peclet number has been investigated. Results of the study indicated that shape of the packing has significant effect on holdup and axial dispersion. Bodenstein number has been correlated to Reynolds number, Galileo number, shape and size of the packing.     

Gas entry effects in fluidized bed reactors

Experimental results from an X-ray study of gas bubbles entering a fluidized bed of two differently sized powders are presented and their significance for chemical reactions taking place in the distributor region of a fluidized bed reactor are examined using a simple two-phase model.     

Monitoring the fluidized bed reactor for polyethylene polymerization based on fibre optic acoustic emission sensor

This paper presents applications of a new class of fibre optic acoustic emission (FOAE) sensor to monitor the operation of fluidized bed reactors used in polyethylene production. Specifically, the sensor was implemented to detect undesired, abnormal phenomena related to particle agglomeration, wall sheeting, fine overflow, and variations in the superficial gas velocity. The experiments were executed using a fluidized bed cold model setup for polyethylene powders with average particle sizes of 250, 1000, and 2000 μm. The results demonstrated that the presence of agglomerated particles in the fluidized bed reactor increases the kurtosis of the acoustic emission (AE) signal. Furthermore, the overflow of small particles can be detected by mounting the FOAE sensor below the gas distributor plate and monitoring an increase in the root mean square (RMS) of the AE signal. The AE signal RMS increased with the rising superficial gas velocity. Besides, forming a sheet layer on the reactor wall decreased the AE signal RMS. The proposed sensor's main benefits are its simple design, rapid response to abnormal conditions in the fluidized bed reactor, immunity against electromagnetic noise, high-temperature resistance, and safety in hazardous areas.     

Biodegradation of organic compounds in fluidized bed reactors

Biodegradation of organics in fluidized bed reactors was studied experimentally. Both single-substrate and mixed-substrate systems were considered. With the use of a previously developed biofilm model, parameters pertinent to the degradation of mixed-substrate systems and their single substrate system counterparts were evaluated and compared. Two approaches attempted to predict the degradation of a mixed-substrate system. One assumed independent biodegradaion and diffusion of individual substrates while the other used a lumped concentration approach. The latter approach was found to give better agreement with experiments than the former.     

流化床膜反应器的应用研究进展

流化床膜反应器中所采用的膜主要有2类,一类为钯(及其合金)膜,另外一类为透氧膜.介绍了近十几年来流化床膜反应器的新型应用研究,主要集中在反应器概念设计、膜及其透过性能、以及流化床流体特性.提出未来有必要对流化床膜反应器中化学反应与膜分离过程的耦合这一关键科学问题进行深入的研究,揭示膜对流化床流体力学特性的影响和流化床对膜透过性能的影响机理,以及这两个过程的耦合机制.     

Sequential modular simulation of circulating fluidized bed reactors

Bypassing the mathematical complexity of equation-oriented approaches in predicting the performance of chemical reactors has recently stimulated a significant amount of interest. Among chemical reactors, circulating fluidized bed reactors (CFBRs) have secured an important role in a broad range of applications in energy sectors due to their advantages, including high fluid-solid contact efficiency, uniform temperature, and enhanced heat and mass transfer rates. Accordingly, modelling and predicting the performance of these reactors is of great importance. In this study, a sequence-based model was developed to predict the behaviour of CFBRs. Complex phenomena in CFBRs were mimicked by two sub-models, namely the hydrodynamics module, which addressed the physical changes, and the reaction kinetics module, which described the chemical evolution of species. The performance of the proposed model was validated with a library of catalytic ozone decomposition experimental data in CFBRs. This work introduces a new infrastructure for modelling CFBRs, which may be combined with the current process simulation software, such as Aspen Plus©, for advanced process modelling applications.     

Thin polymer films from fluidized electrode bed reactors

The formation and deposition of a polymer as a thin, uniform solid film on a metal particle substrate is investigated in detail in a fluidized electrode bed reactor. Experiments were carried out in different designs of fluidized bed electrode cell reactor, using various metal particles and monomers. It was observed that diacetone acrylamide (DAA) monomer in 0.1N H₂SO₄ with aluminum particles (3530 μm) as cathode, in a concentric dual compartment cell, appeared to yield the best films. Infrared and elemental analyses were used to characterize the polymer film on the metal particles. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed to examine the surface and cross-sectional profiles of the films. The potential profiles in both particulate and solution phases were measured and the importance of particulate electrical conductivity in the polymerization is thus explained. It was observed that the optimum particulate conductivity and hence the maximum yield occurs in the range of 10–20% bed expansion. The experimental product yields for various liquid superficial velocities (i.e., bed expansion) at different feeder current densities were compared to explain the possible controlling mechanism in packed and fluidized bed cells, noting that both chemical reaction and mass transfer control in the low bed expansion region while chemical reaction controls in the high bed expansion region. The current effciency decreases in the high current region due to side reactions at the fluidized bed electrode and due to pore diffusion in the polymer film.     

A new model for bubbling fluidized bed reactors

Various mathematical models have been proposed in the past for estimating the conversions of reactant gases in fluidized bed reactors. A new mathematical model is being proposed in this paper that gives relatively better results compared to the prevailing models for bubbling fluidized bed reactors utilizing Geldart B particles. The new model is named as JSR (Jain, Sathiyamoorthy, Rao) model and it is a modified version of bubble assemblage model of Kato and Wen (1969). This paper discusses the development of JSR model and its verification by using data from chemical engineering literature on fluidization and also experimental data from hydrochlorination of silicon in a fluidized bed reactor. The new model is tested for five processes having operating temperatures from 130 °C to 450 °C, operating velocities from 0.019 m s⁻¹ to 0.19 m s⁻¹ and solid particle sizes from 65 to 325 mesh.     

Flow patterns in a pilot plant-scale turbulent fluidized bed reactor: Concurrent application of tracers and fiber optic sensors

Hydrodynamics of a turbulent fluidized bed is studied by means of the concurrent application of fiber optic sensors and a helium tracer. It is observed that in the vicinity of the column wall there is a high bubble activity region. Low bubble activity and negative bubble velocities are reported for the dense phase near the column centre-line region. A temperature increase from 22 to 145°C results in a more homogeneous turbulent fluidized bed with smaller bubbles and more gas flowing through an expanded dense bed emulsion phase. Mass transfer coefficients between bubble-emulsion (k_be) and bubble-annulus (k_ba) are evaluated. The dominant mass transfer path was the one from the bubbles to the annular region with k_ba being several times greater than k_be.     

Gas mixing in a turbulent fluidized bed reactor

A series of experiments has been conducted to study mixing and hydrodynamic behaviour of a downward facing sparger in a turbulent fluidized bed reactor. Using pressure measurement techniques, two flow discharge modes were identified around the sparger by injecting a gas tracer into the bed. These are bubbling and jetting conditions. Experimental results show that, under bubbling conditions, bubbles tend to keep their identity, while under jetting conditions a highly turbulent heterogeneous area is formed around the injection point. Due to attrition and erosion of internal heating or cooling surfaces in industrial reactors, the dominant discharge mode is the bubbling pattern. Therefore, in this investigation, the bubbling pattern is studied by measuring the radial and axial dispersion of gas tracer injected to a hot fluidized bed reactor of 20 cm diameter of FCC and sand particles. A three‐phase model is also proposed in order to predict the mixing length. In addition, the effect of sparger configuration on tracer gas mixing was examined for FCC particles.