The effects of reward contingency and performance feedback on intrinsic motivation.

93 high school students were offered performance or task-contingent rewards or no reward for doing hidden-figures puzzles. Ss offered performance-contingent rewards all received positive feedback concerning performance, and half the Ss in task-contingent and no-reward conditions received the same positive feedback. Performance-contingent rewards were found to undermine intrinsic motivation more than task-contingent ones, which produced decrements relative to control conditions of no reward, supporting E. Deci's (1972, 1975) control model. Positive feedback enhanced intrinsic motivation; this effect was independent of reward effects. A recall measure indicated that Ss receiving performance-contingent rewards remembered fewer performance-irrelevant details about the task, suggesting that rewards may affect the process of task involvement as well as its motivational outcomes. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of extrinsic financial rewards on intrinsic motivation.

Utilized a chess-problem task to evaluate E. L. Deci's hypothesis that contingent extrinsic rewards will decrease intrinsic motivation. After observing the amount of time 28 undergraduates spent working on the task in a free period, one group was offered a financial incentive for performing the task while another group was not. One week later, Ss were again observed in a free period and then performed the task again with no financial incentive. Results support the hypothesis, and data that rule out specific methodological criticisms of Deci's paradigm are presented. Findings are discussed in terms of whether extrinsic rewards and motivation interact with intrinsic motivation. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reality, intrinsic motivation, and creativity.

Comments on R. Eisenberger and J. Cameron's (see record 1996-06440-007) discussion on the impact of reward on creativity. The authors argue that Eisenberger and Cameron overlooked or failed to adequately explain several demonstrations of lower creativity on rewarded activities as compared with nonrewarded activities. Moreover, the evidence they provided of increased creativity under reward is more informative about relatively simple human behaviors than about actual creative performance. The authors believe that it is erroneous and misleading to conclude, as do Eisenberger and Cameron, that the detrimental effects of reward occur under limited conditions that are easily avoided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Praise, involvement, and intrinsic motivation.

In this experiment, we examined the relation between content of praise, type of involvement, and intrinsic motivation. College students were introduced to a hidden-figure task in either an ego-involving (i.e., testlike) or task-involving (i.e., gamelike) manner and then received either ability-focused, effort-focused, or no praise for their performance. As predicted, task involvement increased intrinsic motivation relative to ego involvement, and ability praise increased intrinsic motivation relative to effort praise or no praise. Furthermore, praise and involvement interacted so that subjects who received effort praise were relatively more intrinsically motivated under task-involving than ego-involving conditions, whereas those who received ability praise were relatively more motivated under ego-involving than task-involving conditions. Also, the higher levels of intrinsic motivation were accompanied by a choice of higher level of challenge and better performance at a related but more complex task. Finally, a significant Sex?×?Praise interaction was found, reflecting that women tended to display more intrinsic motivation in the no-praise condition than in the two praise conditions, whereas men showed the reverse pattern. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of fear of success on intrinsic motivation, causal attribution, and choice behavior.

Examined the extent to which fear of success (FOS) moderates effects of choice and task outcomes on intrinsic motivation, causal attribution, and subsequent choice behavior. 139 undergraduates worked either on puzzles of their choice or puzzles that were assigned to them and were then informed that they had performed either better or worse than the majority of other Ss. Measures of intrinsic motivation (task engagement during a free-choice period) and of attribution for performance were obtained. Ss then indicated how much choice they wanted to have over similar tasks that they were going to perform. Finally, Ss completed the Fear of Success Scale and a resultant achievement motivation measure. Results show that following success, low FOS Ss (in comparison to high FOS Ss) showed higher intrinsic motivation, made more internal attributions, and wanted to have more choice if initially they had been given choice and less choice if initially they had been given no choice. There were no significant differences between low and high FOS Ss following failure. Results could not be accounted for by resultant achievement motivation that was unrelated to FOS. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the relative effects of positive and negative verbal feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation.

Assessed the relative effects of positive and negative feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation and attempted to replicate findings by the present authors (see record 1984-30609-001) regarding the mediating effects of feelings of competence on the verbal feedback/intrinsic motivation relation. 30 male and 30 female undergraduates performed an interesting task and received either positive or negative feedback relative to their performance. Ss then filled out intrinsic motivation and feelings of competence scales. Results show that, relative to negative feedback, positive feedback led to higher levels of intrinsic motivation and competence feelings for both males and females. Results of the path analysis involving verbal feedback, competence feelings, and intrinsic motivation revealed a picture clearly in line with a mediating model. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-handicapping and intrinsic motivation: Buffering intrinsic motivation from the threat of failure.

High and low self-handicappers (as measured by E. E. Jones & F. Rhodewalt's [1982] Self-Handicapping Scale) were asked to play a game of pinball (in a competitive or noncompetitive setting) after they had practiced as much as they wanted on a related task (thus, not practicing could have served as a self-handicap). High self-handicappers who did not practice much became more involved in the game and subsequently reported enjoying the game more than high self-handicappers who practiced a lot. Furthermore, the effects on enjoyment were mediated by task involvement, suggesting that the protection afforded by self-handicapping affects intrinsic motivation by allowing the individual to become absorbed in the activity instead of focusing on performance concerns. Individuals who self-handicap may be providing themselves with the "breathing room" they need to become absorbed in an activity and to experience the activity as enjoyable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cognitive feedback on performance.

This presents a comprehensive review of the empirical literature bearing on the effects of cognitive feedback (CFB) on multiple measures of performance. CFB refers to the process of presenting the person information about the relations in the environment (task information [TI]), relations perceived by the person (cognitive information [CI]), and relations between the environment and the persons's perceptions of the environment (functional validity information [FVI]). Overall, CFB does improve performance on judgment tasks. Specifically, the research indicates that TI rather than CI is the aspect of CFB that influences performance. Factors influencing the effects of CFB on performance are discussed, and both current and potential applications of CFB are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation.

Two experiments investigated the effects of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation for an enjoyable pinball game. Exp 1 manipulated Ss' performance (demonstrating ability) and mastery (developing one's skills) achievement goals and contrasted them with a neutral control group. Exp 2 replicated Exp 1 and extended it by additionally providing (or not) Ss with positive, goal-relevant feedback. Results were consistent across studies, indicating that individual differences in achievement orientation moderated the influence of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation. Specifically, performance goals enhanced intrinsic motivation for achievement-oriented individuals, whereas mastery goals enhanced interest for those low in achievement orientation. The results were discussed in the context of J. M. Harackiewicz and C. Sansone's (1991) model of intrinsic motivation processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Surveillant intentions and intrinsic motivation.

Alternative predictions about the influence of surveillance on intrinsic motivation were derived from cognitive evaluation and objective self-awareness theories. Adult Ss in Exp 1 were assigned to surveillance conditions that implicated either controlling or noncontrolling surveillant intentions or to no-surveillance conditions. A behavioral measure revealed greater intrinsic motivation in the noncontrolling intention and no-surveillance conditions than in the controlling intention conditions (ps?     

Teacher comments, letter grades, and student performance: What do we really know?

Attempted to replicate E. B. Page's (1958) major finding of written comment effectiveness. 415 5th and 7th graders in 17 mathematics and spelling classes were evaluated by their teachers for 6 wks with experimentally determined combinations of letter grades and comments. Immediate and long-term treatment effects were judged by objective test performance following a mean of 1.6 and 4.1 evaluations, respectively. Results from a Friedman analysis of variance indicated no significant main effects. Data from 12 other replication studies were examined. Results of the L test of ordered hypotheses indicates no significant amount of agreement between Page's major finding and the general order of experimental results of the replication studies. Implications for classroom teachers are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in predicting final examination grades: The influence of past performance, attributions, and achievement motivation.

43 male and 41 female undergraduates reported their high school and last semester GPAs, their 1st and 2nd midterm grades, and their final exam predictions. Ss also rated the influence that ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck had on their performances and completed Mehrabian's achievement motivation scale. Regression analyses provided support for the attribution model of achievement expectations. All Ss used ability to explain their successes; however, males attributed failures to lack of effort while females often used luck to explain their performances. Although both sexes earned equal midterm scores and predicted similar final grades, males based their predictions solely on the 2 midterms. Females' predictions were significantly affected by both midterm performance and achievement motivation. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Additivity versus nonadditivity of intrinsic and extrinsic incentives: Implications for work motivation, performance, and attitudes.

80 male Ss were randomly assigned to either an intrinsically appealing or an intrinsically nonappealing assembly task. Half of the Ss were paid according to a highly salient, continuous, contingent reward schedule, while the other half were paid according to an extremely noncontingent payment schedule. Thus, 20 Ss worked for both intrinsic and extrinsic incentives, 20 for extrinsic only, 20 for intrinsic only, and 20 for minimal incentives of either type. Data on 4 dependent variables (performance, intrinsic motivation, orientation toward the task, and intrinsic satisfaction) provided convergent support for E. L. Deci's (see record 1968-02190-001) hypothesis that intrinsic and extrinsic incentives are not additive in determining attitudes and behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of goals and feedback on performance in groups.

In the first study, 26 undergraduate pairs and 52 individuals worked on a perceptual speed task for 20 min to win prizes based on performance. The pairs set group goals and individual goals to be attained, whereas the individuals set only individual goals. Despite the equal levels of individual goals set, goal acceptance and performance were significantly higher for the pairs than for the individuals. A stepwise hierarchical regression analysis supported the contributions of goal acceptance and group goals to performance. In the second study, 50 undergraduate pairs were assigned a goal to be attained as teams on a perceptual speed task lasting 15 min. Group and individual task feedback, given after 7? min of work, significantly improved performance only for those subjects who were below target for either group or individual feedback, yielding interaction effects on performance. The implications of the findings for group goal setting, social loafing, and organizational effectiveness are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work attitudes, motivation, and performance.

Discusses motivational variables both as determinants of performance by the individual in an organization, and as ingredients of work attitudes, such as job satisfaction. Motivation studies have included motivational traits (relatively enduring predispositions), motivating environments, expectancies, and equity theory. Research on job satisfaction and job involvement reveals few consistent relationships to job performance, but they do predict absenteeism and turnover. A few studies of motivational traits suggest possible utility in predicting role performance in managerial or sales positions. Motivating environments seem to have significant relations to job satisfaction and effectiveness. After reviewing several categories of programs aimed at improving motivation, the author expresses a cautiously optimistic view about the success of these programs in improving worker attitudes and/or worker performance. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-task generalization of intrinsic motivation effects.

Examined whether prior autonomy-supporting (AS) and externally controlling (EC) experiences can affect reactions to new activities (NAs). In Exp 1, 152 university students received self-determining (i.e., AS) pretreatment experience, and EC pretreatment experience, or no pretreatment experience with an initial activity and then received an expected task-contingent reward or an unexpected reward after engaging in an NA. In Exp 2, 53 university students received high competency feedback (i.e., AS) or average competency feedback following performance of an initial activity, and then received an expected or unexpected reward after engaging in an NA. Initial AS experiences produced relatively lower intrinsic motivation to engage in the NAs. Ss' experiences with prior activities interacted with subsequent reward variations to affect their reactions to NAs. Prior AS experienced averted negative motivation effects of expected rewards on NAs, whereas prior EC experienced suppressed subsequent intrinsic motivation. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of expected and obtained grades on teacher evaluation and attribution of performance.

72 college students were randomly assigned to expect that they would perform at either the A, B, or C level on a subsequent exam. Ss then listened to a taped lecture, after which they took an exam on the lecture. Ss were then randomly assigned to believe that they had obtained either an A, B, or C grade. Finally, Ss evaluated the lecturer and indicated the degree to which they attributed their performance to themselves or to the lecturer. There were significant main effects of expected and obtained grades such that the lower the expected grade or the higher the obtained grade the more favorable the teacher evaluation. Ss who obtained an A attributed the causality for their performance most strongly to themselves, while Ss obtaining a C attributed their performance most strongly to the teacher. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retrieval of attitude-relevant information from memory: Effects on susceptibility to persuasion and on intrinsic motivation.

Examined the distinction between (a) classical views of attitudes as stable dispositions based on beliefs and prior experiences accessed from memory and (b) the self-perception analysis of attitudes as relatively transitory responses dependent on current contextual cues. The access of 159 undergraduates to relevant information in memory was assessed by the number of issue-related beliefs and prior experiences they could retrieve. In Exp I, Ss read a counter-attitudinal message. As expected, Ss with little access to beliefs and prior experiences, in comparison to those with greater access, changed their opinions to be more consistent with the message position. In Exp II, Ss agreed to advocate a pro-attitudinal position for a reward or no reward. As expected, Ss with access to little relevant information in memory inferred their attitudes from their decision to proselytize: Rewarded Ss explained their decision less in terms of their own belief in the position than did Ss who had greater access to information in favor of the position, who tended to attribute their decision to a belief in the topic, regardless of the presence or absence of the reward. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of interest–major congruence, motivation, and academic performance on timely degree attainment.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 57(2) of Journal of Counseling Psychology (see record 2010-06436-009). The link to the supplemental material was incorrect. The correct link is provided in the erratum.] Using longitudinal student data from 15 four-year (n = 3,072) and 13 (n = 788) two-year postsecondary institutions, the authors tested the effects of interest–major congruence, motivation, and 1st-year academic performance on timely degree completion. Findings suggest that interest–major congruence has a direct effect on timely degree completion at both institutional settings and that motivation has indirect effects (via 1st-year academic performance). The total effects of both interest–major congruence and motivation on timely degree completion underscore the importance of both constructs in understanding student adjustment and postsecondary success. Implications for theory and counseling practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)