Patterns of cardiovascular responses to stress as a function of race and parental hypertension in men.

Investigated cardiovascular responses to 12 stressors known to elicit either beta-adrenergic (mental arithmetic) or alpha-adrenergic (forehead cold pressor) reactivity in 27 Black and 29 White normotensive male college undergraduates. Ss in each group were selected for presence or absence of parental hypertension. Based on previous research (e.g., F. M. Abboud and J. W. Eckstein [1966], H. Barcroft et al [1960]) Blacks were expected to show smaller cardiovascular responses to the beta-adrenergic mental arithmetic task and greater responses to the alpha-adrenergic cold pressor relative to the Whites. Unlike previous findings, no significant racial differences in cardiovascular responses were found during either task. However, Black participants had significantly higher systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure levels throughout the cold pressor periods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychophysiological reactivity to mental arithmetic stress in Black and White normotensive men.

34 Black and 42 White male normotensives 34–55 yrs old performed a mental arithmetic task while blood pressure, heart rate, and skin conductance were recorded. Compared with Whites, Blacks had significantly higher baseline diastolic blood pressure and lower skin conductance levels. These effects persisted during performance of the mental arithmetic task. When baseline differences were covaried, there were no significant physiological effects associated with the task. There were no significant race or family history effects, and task performance did not influence the outcome. Failure to demonstrate greater cardiovascular reactivity in Blacks and all men with a positive family history of hypertension is discussed with regard to possible survivor effects and methodologic limitations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial differences in stress-induced cardiovascular reactivity and hypertension: Current status and substantive issues.

Essential hypertension is perhaps the number-one health problem of Black Americans. Research has indicated that stress-induced cardiovascular hyperreactivity may be a significant contributor to essential hypertension. The high prevalence of hypertension among Blacks suggests that this group, in comparison with Whites, may be particularly susceptible to cardiovascular hyperreactivity. The first portion of this article reviews research to date that has examined racial differences in resting and stressor-induced cardiovascular activity. The second half of this article overviews some critical methodological and conceptual issues involved in the study of racial differences in reactivity. These issues include the effects of Black-White differences in plasma renin levels and sodium excretion, the effects of experimenter race, and differences in perceptions of the laboratory environment. Additionally, the issue of racial group classification and the implications this has for interpreting Black-White differences in reactivity is discussed. Two perspectives on racial group classification, the genetic and the sociocultural, are addressed in some detail, and the relevance of each to research on racial differences in stress reactivity is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Resting cardiovascular levels and reactivity to interpersonal incivility among Black, Latina/o, and White individuals: The moderating role of ethnic discrimination.

Objective: The objective of this study was to examine cardiovascular responses among Black, non-Hispanic White, and Latina/o participants exposed to a potentially discriminatory situation. The study also examined the moderating role of prior history of discrimination on cardiovascular responses. Design: Black, Latina/o, and White participants engaged in a resting baseline and then interacted with an uncivil White research assistant. Main Outcome Measures: Two measures of prior exposure to discrimination were administered. Participants' blood pressure and heart rate (HR) were monitored throughout the protocol. The primary outcomes were resting cardiovascular function and cardiovascular reactivity to the uncivil interaction. Results: Past discrimination was related to higher resting systolic blood pressure (SBP) among Latina/o participants and lower resting SBP among White participants. Further, past discrimination was related to attenuated SBP and HR reactivity among Latina/o participants but was related to augmented HR reactivity among White participants. Discrimination was not related to resting levels or reactivity among Black participants. Conclusion: This study is the first to examine the relationship between discrimination and cardiovascular responses to interpersonal incivility among Black, Latina/o, and White individuals. Findings suggest that the relationship between discrimination and cardiovascular risk may differ by ethnicity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discrimination, dispositions, and cardiovascular responses to stress.

Objective: Recent research suggests that past exposure to discrimination may influence perceptions of, and physiological responses to, new challenges. The authors examined how race and trait levels of hostility and optimism interact with past exposure to discrimination to predict physiological reactivity and recovery during an anger recall task. Design: A community sample of 165 normotensive Black and White adults participated in an anger recall task while having their cardiovascular function monitored. Main Outcome Measures: Blood pressure and heart rate indicators of physiological reactivity and recovery. Results and Conclusion: Participants had higher reactivity and slower recovery to the anger recall task when they had high past discrimination, low cynicism, or high optimism. The pattern of effects was similar for both racial groups, but Blacks had more acute reactivity and slower recovery than Whites. These results are consistent with the perspective of discrimination as a chronic stressor that is related to acute stress responses, particularly for Blacks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction.

The present research examined how implicit racial associations and explicit racial attitudes of Whites relate to behaviors and impressions in interracial interactions. Specifically, the authors examined how response latency and self-report measures predicted bias and perceptions of bias in verbal and nonverbal behavior exhibited by Whites while they interacted with a Black partner. As predicted, Whites' self-reported racial attitudes significantly predicted bias in their verbal behavior to Black relative to White confederates. Furthermore, these explicit attitudes predicted how much friendlier Whites felt that they behaved toward White than Black partners. In contrast, the response latency measure significantly predicted Whites' nonverbal friendliness and the extent to which the confederates and observers perceived bias in the participants' friendliness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosocial mediators of racial differences in nighttime blood pressure dipping among normotensive adults.

Shallow declines in nocturnal compared with diurnal blood pressure (BP dipping) have been associated with cardiovascular disease. In U.S. samples, Blacks demonstrate less BP dipping compared with Whites. In a sample of 60 Black and 60 White normotensive adults we examined stress, social integration (including parental status), social support, and hostility as potential mediators of the association between race and BP dipping. The effect of race on diastolic BP dipping was partially mediated by parental status. The effect of race on heart rate dipping was partially mediated by stressful life events. No psychosocial factors mediated the relation between race and systolic BP dipping. Although psychosocial factors appear to account for some of the observed racial differences in nocturnal blood pressure decline, our data suggest that these differences cannot be attributed entirely to covarying psychosocial effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Story recall in young Black and White children: Effects of racial group membership, race of experimenter, and dialect.

Tested the effects of racial group membership, race of E, and dialect on unstructured and probed recall. l6 Black and 16 White 4-6 mo old children were Ss. Subgroups of 4 Ss within each racial group were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions such that order of exposure to E (Black and White) and dialects Standard English vs Black English vernacular) were counterbalanced. Results show that Whites performed better than Blacks in Standard English, Blacks performed better than Whites in Black English vernacular, Blacks tested in Black English vernacular were equivalent to Whites tested in Standard English, and Whites performed better in Standard English than in Black English vernacular. When probed with questions, there was an overall increase in the proportion of correct information for both racial groups. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Central adiposity and hemodynamic functioning at rest and during stress in adolescents

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of central adiposity upon hemodynamic functioning at rest and during stress in adolescents. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, correlational study. SUBJECTS: 46 White and 49 Black normotensive adolescents with family histories of essential hypertension. MEASUREMENTS: Systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP), cardiac output and total peripheral resistance responses were assessed at rest, during postural change, video game challenge and forehead cold stimulation. Specific lower and higher waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) tertiles were created for each gender and then integrated for analyses. This resulted in a lower WHR tertile of 11 Whites and 21 Blacks and an upper WHR tertile of 15 Whites and 17 Blacks. RESULTS: No differences in age, gender or ethnicity proportions were found between tertile groups (all P > 0.21). The upper WHR group showed greater body weight, waist and hip circumferences, body mass index (BMI), triceps skinfold and body surface area (all P < 0.001). Controlling for peripheral (that is, triceps skinfold) and overall (that is, BMI) adiposity, the upper WHR group exhibited greater SBP (that is, peak response minus mean pre-stressor level) to all three stressors and greater DBP reactivity to postural change and cold pressor (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Central adiposity appears to adversely influence hemodynamic functioning during adolescence. Underlying mechanisms responsible for these associations require exploration.     

Race and gender comparisons: II. Predictions of work blood pressure from laboratory baseline and cardiovascular reactivity measures.

In 148 Black and White men and women, laboratory measures of blood pressure (BP), heart rate, stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO), and total peripheral resistance (TPR) during baseline and 5 stressors were examined in relationship to ambulatory systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressures at work. Baseline BP strongly predicted mean work levels in all groups. For White men and Black women, higher SV and CO responses to the active speech, and averaged across all tasks, predicted higher work SBP individually and also when added to a model based on baseline SBP, age, and diary information. For White women, higher SBP increases to the passive speech similarly predicted mean work SBP. For Black men, higher TPR response to the cold pressor test correlated with higher work SBP but did not improve a predictor model involving baseline SBP and age. Reactivity measures did not consistently contribute to prediction of work DBP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and ethnicity in children's cardiovascular reactivity: 7 years of study.

A total of 295 children (127 White boys, 15 Black boys, 133 White girls, and 20 Black girls) participated in reactivity examinations in 1987 (all were in 3rd grade; age, M?=?9.1 years), 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, and 1993 (all were in 9th grade; age, M?=?15.1 years). An analysis of residualized reactivity change values indicated consistent and significant ethnicity effects (Blacks greater than Whites) for systolic and diastolic blood pressure and for heart rate. Gender effects were also apparent for both systolic and diastolic blood pressure (boys greater than girls). These data suggest that the transition from childhood to adolescence is associated with a significant pattern of ethnic differences in reactivity, although the association of this pattern with the development of cardiovascular risk and disease remains to be ascertained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Central Adiposity Is Associated With Cardiovascular Reactivity to Stress in Adolescents.

The current study examined the association between central adiposity, measured by waist circumference, and cardiovascular reactivity to stress among 106 White and 105 Black adolescents, approximately 50% of whom were girls. Participants engaged in 4 laboratory tasks while cardiovascular reactivity measures were taken. Independent of body mass index, race, and gender, participants with a greater waist circumference exhibited greater systolic blood pressure reactivity and diastolic blood pressure reactivity (boys only). Race did not affect the results. Results from the present study suggest that central adiposity is associated with blood pressure reactivity early in life, especially in adolescent boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cardiovascular and neurohumoral responses to behavioral challenge as a function of race and sex.

Cardiovascular and hormonal responses to a structured interview, an electronic video game, a cold pressor test, and exercise on a bicycle ergometer were assessed in 83 normotensive Black and White men and women (aged 25–44 yrs). Black Ss showed significantly greater diastolic blood pressure (DBP) responses than White Ss during the cold pressor test, which were not accounted for by an increase in plasma catecholamines. Exercise produced reliably greater systolic blood pressure (SBP) increases in Black women than in Black men or White women. Men showed significantly greater SBP and DBP changes than women during the video game. The pattern of physiological reactivity elicited by challenge may be related to the Ss' race and sex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type A behavior, family history of hypertension, and cardiovascular responsivity among Black women.

Determined the effects of Type A (coronary-prone) behavior and family history of hypertension on cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress in 50 26–63 yr old employed Black women. Results indicated that Type A behavior was associated with systolic and diastolic blood pressure hyperresponsivity during a structured interview (SI) but not during mental arithmetic. Certain speech components of the Type A pattern, as well as features of the potential-for-hostility component, were also related to cardiovascular responses during the SI. Family history of hypertension did not influence the cardiovascular parameters. Results suggest that many of the cardiovascular response characteristics of the Type A pattern that have been observed in predominately White samples also hold true for Blacks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal communication of affect in interracial dyads.

Two experiments investigated the relationship between nonverbal behavior and the racial composition of a teacher–student dyad. The Multifactor Racial Attitude Inventory was used to measure prejudice. In Exp I, 36 high- and low-prejudiced White female undergraduates, acting as teachers, were led to praise successful White and Black students (confederates). Analysis of samples of nonverbal behavior showed that high-prejudiced teachers nonverbally discriminated between White and Black students (favoring Whites) significantly more than low-prejudiced teachers. In Exp II, 40 White and Black teachers (female undergraduates) taught successful White and Black students (confederates). Results show that both Whites and Blacks behaved nonverbally more positively to a student of their own race than to a student of the other race, although only same-race judges (12 White female undergraduates) could distinguish the differences in affect displayed by the Ss. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Metoprolol metabolism via cytochrome P4502D6 in ethnic populations

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine whether metabolism via cytochrome P4502D6 (CYP2D6) was higher in Black subjects than White subjects. METHODS: Ten Black and 10 White healthy male volunteers who were phenotyped CYP2D6 extensive metabolizer phenotypes participated in this randomized, cross-over study in which metoprolol was used as a model CYP2D6 substrate. In both study phases, subjects received oral rac-metoprolol tartrate (200 mg); during one phase, subjects also took quinidine sulfate (100 mg) daily beginning 3 days before the dose of metoprolol. Plasma samples were collected for 12 and 24 hr after the dose in the metoprolol and metoprolol plus quinidine phases, respectively. Metoprolol enantiomer concentrations were determined by chiral HPLC with fluorescence detection. RESULTS: S-metoprolol areas under the concentration vs. time curves during the metoprolol phase were 879 +/- 600 ng/ml*hr in White subjects vs. 984 +/- 653 ng/ml*hr in Black subjects. During inhibition of CYP2D6-mediated metabolism with quinidine, S-metoprolol areas under the concentration vs. time curves were 2515 +/- 749 and 2719 +/- 742 in White and Black subjects, respectively. Metoprolol elimination half-lives in both groups were approximately doubled by quinidine. Mean S-metoprolol/R-metoprolol ratios were 1.39 in both racial groups during the metoprolol phase, and during the metoprolol plus quinidine phase were 0.89 and 1.03 in White subjects and Black subjects, respectively (p < 0.05, Blacks vs. Whites). The percentage of metoprolol metabolism inhibited by quinidine was similar between Blacks and Whites (e.g., 66 +/- 15% and 64 +/- 25% of S-metoprolol apparent oral clearance in Blacks and Whites, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that there are no differences between Black subjects and White subjects in metabolism via CYP2D6. There were also no racial differences in the contribution of CYP2D6 to overall metoprolol metabolism. The results of this study suggest that drugs are primarily metabolized by CYP2D6 will not exhibit racial differences in their disposition.     

Modeling relationships among socioeconomic status, hostility, cardiovascular reactivity, and left ventricular mass in African American and White children.

In African American and White children and adolescents (N?=?147), socioeconomic status (SES) was measured in 2 ways: (a) using neighborhood-level measures of population density, median income, educational attainment, and the number of children born to single mothers and (b) using family-level measures of parents' occupation and education. Structural equation modeling revealed that both lower family SES and lower neighborhood SES were independently associated with greater hostility and consequently greater cardiovascular reactivity to laboratory stressors in African Americans. Independent of neighborhood SES, only lower family SES was associated with greater cardiovascular reactivity in Whites. Heightened cardiovascular reactivity was associated with greater left ventricular mass (LVM) in Whites and marginally greater LVM in African Americans. Results suggest the importance of using multiple indicators of SES and confirm the relationship between SES and LVM in African Americans and Whites, albeit through different pathways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluative race–class stereotypes by race and perceived class of subjects.

80 Black and 74 White college students assigned traits, from a list of 80, to the Black lower class, Black middle class, White lower class, and White middle class. Each S rated the 5 or fewer traits that he or she had chosen as being most typical of the respective race–class groups from –5 (unfavorable) to +5 (favorable) for the given groups. Ss also assigned themselves to 1 of 4 classes: lower class, working class, middle class, or upper class. On the basis of these judgments, the Ss within each racial group were classified as perceiving themselves to be above or below the median of their own race's distribution. White Ss assigned more favorable characteristics to the middle than to the lower class and did not rate Blacks lower than Whites. Black Ss made a similar, but smaller, social class distinction and, in addition, generally perceived Blacks more favorably than Whites. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

WISC-R subscale patterns of abilities of Blacks and Whites matched on Full Scale IQ.

270 Black and 270 White children (ages 6–16.5 yrs) drawn from the national stratified random sample used in the standardization of the WISC-R were matched on age, sex, and WISC-R Full-Scale IQ to facilitate investigation of the patterns of specific cognitive abilities, as measured by the 12 subtests of the WISC-R, between the 2 racial groups. Multivariate analysis of the patterns of subtest differences between Whites and Blacks and group comparisons on 3 orthogonalized factor scores (Verbal, Performance, Memory) showed small but reliable average White–Black differences in patterns of ability. The IQ-matched racial groups showed no significant difference on the Verbal factor; Whites exceeded Blacks on the Performance (largely spatial visualization) factor; Blacks exceeded Whites on the Memory factor. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)