Can decline in adult intellectual functioning be reversed?

Examined whether or not cognitive decline in the elderly that has been reliably demonstrated over a 14-yr period can be reversed. 97 male and 132 female participants (aged 64–95 yrs) in a long-term longitudinal study were classified into those who had declined (n?=?122) and those who had remained stable (n?=?107) on the abilities of inductive reasoning and spatial orientation, based on their performances on the Primary Mental Ability Reasoning and Spatial Orientation Tests. Ss were assigned to 5-hr training programs on either ability in a pretest–posttest design that used Ss trained on 1 target ability as controls for those trained on the other. Results show that cognitive training techniques reliably reverse decline in spatial and reasoning ability documented over a 14-yr period in a substantial number of Ss. Training procedures also enhanced the performance of many Ss who had remained stable. Training improvement on spatial orientation was found to be greater for decliners than for those who remained stable and greater for females than for males. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Field dependence and intellectual functioning.

"The present study was designed to test the hypotheses that some intellectual and perceptual tasks have a common requirement for overcoming embedded contexts, and that relationships obtained between measures of field dependence and standard tests of intelligence are based on this common factor. Two factor analyses were conducted on matrices of correlations between cognitive tests, including tests of field dependence and the subtests of the WISC. The results tend to support both hypotheses." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weighting agreement responses by item scale values.

Investigated the idea that attitude measures should include 2 components: an evaluative component and a measure of the strength of agreement. A number of scoring methods were analyzed for a newly developed measure of worker attitude, the Survey of Work Values. Multipoint and dichotomous scoring of agreement responses were highly correlated with scores based upon a more elaborate multiplicative technique which used both evaluative and agreement weights. Results suggest that the unweighted methods of scoring be used, but that additional research is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analysis of item response and differential item functioning of alcohol expectancies in middle school youths.

Drinking behavior in preadolescence is a significant predictor of both short- and long-term negative consequences. This study examined the psychometric properties of 1 known risk factor for drinking in this age group, alcohol expectancies, within an item response theory framework. In a sample of middle school youths (N = 1,273), the authors tested differential item functioning (DIF) in positive and negative alcohol expectancies across grade, gender, and ethnicity. Multiple-indicator multiple-cause model analyses tested differences in alcohol use as a potential explanation for observed DIF across groups. Results showed that most expectancy items did not exhibit DIF. For items where DIF was indicated, differences in alcohol use did not explain differences in item parameters. Positive and negative expectancies also systematically differed in the location parameter. Latent variable scale scores of both positive and negative expectancies were associated with drinking behavior cross-sectionally, while only positive expectancies predicted drinking prospectively. Improving the measurement of alcohol expectancies can help researchers better assess this important risk factor for drinking in this population, particularly the identification of those with either very high positive or very low negative alcohol expectancies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential item functioning: Implications for test translations.

Statistical methods based on item response theory (IRT) were used to bidirectionally evaluate the measurement equivalence of translated American and German intelligence tests. Items that displayed differential item functioning (DIF) were identified, and content analysis was used to determine probable sources, of DIF, either cultural or linguistic. The benefits of using an IRT analysis in examining the fidelity of translated tests are described. In addition, the influence of cultural differences on test translations and the use of DIF items to elucidate cultural differences are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paternal behavior and intellectual functioning in preschool boys and girls.

A study of 180 middle-, working-, and lower-class families indicates that less bright females flourished intellectually in a relatively permissive paternal environment; middle-class males appeared to benefit from relatively more paternal control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of log-linear models for assessing differential item functioning in a measure of psychological functioning.

Log-linear models are used to investigate contingency tables that cross-classify respondents according to item response, mental health status (MHS), and the background variables of ethnicity and gender. Specifically, log-linear models are used to examine item validity, defined as an item response by MHS interaction, and differential item functioning (DIF), defined as an interaction between item response and a background variable. The investigation focused on a set of items that measure subjective well-being and coping behavior. Female (n?=?627) and male (n?=?338) respondents represented 3 ethnic groups: African American, Anglo-American, and Hispanic/Latino. Strong evidence of item validity and some evidence of DIF was found. Most of the interaction between item response and either ethnicity or gender occurred among Ss with diminished mental health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluation of two methods for estimating item response theory parameters when assessing differential item functioning.

Recent legal developments appear to sanction the use of psychometrically unsound procedures for examining differential item functioning (DIF) on standardized tests. More appropriate approaches involve the use of item response theory (IRT). However, many IRT-based DIF studies have used F. M. Lord's (see record 1987-17535-001) joint maximum likelihood procedure, which can lead to incorrect and misleading results. A Monte Carlo simulation was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of two other methods of parameter estimation: marginal maximum likelihood estimation and Bayes modal estimation. Sample size and data dimensionality were manipulated in the simulation. Results indicated that both estimation methods (a) provided more accurate parameter estimates and less inflated Type I error rates than joint maximum likelihood, (b) were robust to multidimensionality, and (c) produced more accurate parameter estimates and higher rates of identifying DIF with larger samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detecting differential item functioning with confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory: Toward a unified strategy.

In this article, the authors developed a common strategy for identifying differential item functioning (DIF) items that can be implemented in both the mean and covariance structures method (MACS) and item response theory (IRT). They proposed examining the loadings (discrimination) and the intercept (location) parameters simultaneously using the likelihood ratio test with a free-baseline model and Bonferroni corrected critical p values. They compared the relative efficacy of this approach with alternative implementations for various types and amounts of DIF, sample sizes, numbers of response categories, and amounts of impact (latent mean differences). Results indicated that the proposed strategy was considerably more effective than an alternative approach involving a constrained-baseline model. Both MACS and IRT performed similarly well in the majority of experimental conditions. As expected, MACS performed slightly worse in dichotomous conditions but better than IRT in polytomous cases where sample sizes were small. Also, contrary to popular belief, MACS performed well in conditions where DIF was simulated on item thresholds (item means), and its accuracy was not affected by impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Continuity in intellectual functioning: The role of self-reported health.

Surviving members of the Berkeley Older Generation Study were interviewed and tested with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale in 1969–1970 and again in 1983–1984, when subjects' ages ranged from 73 to 93. Health was assessed by self-reports at both measurement periods. Although many individuals showed some decline in intellectual functioning, substantial individual differences were apparent at all age levels. More than one half of the subjects showed no reliable change, and a minority showed a reliable increase in verbal scores. The role of self-reported health has increasing importance in the maintenance of intellectual functioning in advanced old age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-validation of an index of premorbid intellectual functioning in children.

Attempted to cross-validate the results of C. R. Reynolds and T. B. Gritbin's (1979) index of premorbid intellectual functioning in children. For a clinically relevant sample of 76 nonimpaired and 23 organically impaired children, WISC-R IQs predicted by the index correlated at only minimal and nonsignificant levels with actual IQs. The index's ability to discriminate between the 2 groups was similarly found to be extremely limited. (1 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children.

Autism is a serious psychological disorder with onset in early childhood. Autistic children show minimal emotional attachment, absent or abnormal speech, retarded IQ, ritualistic behaviors, aggression, and self-injury. The prognosis is very poor, and medical therapies have not proven effective. This article reports the results of behavior modification treatment for two groups of similarly constituted, young autistic children. Follow-up data from an intensive, long-term experimental treatment group (n?=?19) showed that 47% achieved normal intellectual and educational functioning, with normal-range IQ scores and successful first grade performance in public schools. Another 40% were mildly retarded and assigned to special classes for the language delayed, and only 10% were profoundly retarded and assigned to classes for the autistic/retarded. In contrast, only 2% of the control-group children (n?=?40) achieved normal educational and intellectual functioning; 45% were mildly retarded and placed in language-delayed classes, and 53% were severely retarded and placed in autistic/retarded classes. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The course of adult intellectual development.

A program of research is summarized that represents the author's lifelong efforts to understand the adult life course of intellectual abilities. The Seattle Longitudinal Study has assessed mental abilities in more than 5,000 adults and has followed some for as long as 35 yrs. Integrative findings are provided on patterns and magnitudes of age changes, cohort differences, factor structure of mental abilities, antecedents for individual differences in aging trajectories, and interventions designed to remediate cognitive aging efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood intellectual development of adult schizophrenics.

Intelligence test scores from the early and later childhoods of 153 schizophrenic adults, 124 with 2 childhood Stanford-Binet tests, and 29 with 2 childhood group tests, were found and analyzed. A statistically significant (.01) loss between early childhood (ages 5-8) and late childhood (ages 11-14) was found on both tests. A control group of 872 children from the same school system showed a gain in score on the 2 group tests between these same years and studies of retest performance of children on the Binet show relatively little loss for children at comparable levels of intelligence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cohort-sequential analyses of adult intellectual development.

Conducted cohort-sequential analyses over a 7-yr interval on measures from the Primary Mental Abilities Test and the Test of Behavioral Rigidity on a sample of 2,151 participants at 1st test (independent random samples study, IS) and 723 individuals who returned for retest after 7 yrs (repeated measurement study, RM). Data were examined for 7-yr age intervals from 25 to 81 yrs, and cohort intervals from 1889 to 1938. Data sets were replicated for periods beginning in 1956 and 1963, respectively. Previous contentions of substantial plasticity in adult intellectual development were supported. Reliably demonstrable within-cohort-decrement occurred only late in life and not for all variables examined. Proportions of variance for ontogenetic change were generally smaller than for cohort differences. Estimated proportionate cumulative decrement at age 67 placed mean values below the range of average 25-yr-olds only for Word Fluency (RM and IS) and for Inductive Reasoning and Space (IS study). By contrast, similar estimates for cohort differences cumulated over a time period equivalent to the age range from 25 to 67 place the mean level of the oldest cohort below the average range of the youngest cohort for most variables examined. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential item functioning in the Mini-Mental State Examination in English- and Spanish-speaking older adults.

The purpose of this study was to determine if the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMS; M. E. Folstein, S. E. Folstein, & R. R. McHugh, 1975) demonstrates item bias with respect to measuring cognitive functioning of older Hispanics and non-Hispanics. Assessment of differential item functioning (DIF) of individual MMS items across 3 language/ethnicity groups (English test administration/non-Hispanic ethnicity, English test administration/Hispanic ethnicity, and Spanish test administration/Hispanic ethnicity) was performed by using a logistic regression procedure. Fifteen of the 26 MMS items were significantly related to total score and were shown to provide unbiased measurement across the 3 groups. Normative data are presented for older Hispanics (n?=?365) and non-Hispanics (n?=?388) on the raw MMS, a 15-item version in which items with significant DIF were eliminated, and a total score statistically adjusted for effects of education and age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reliability and stability of executive functioning in older adults.

A number of methodological questions have been raised about the reliability and validity of measuring executive functioning (EF) across multiple time points. In this study, correlational and latent-variable analyses were used to examine test-retest reliability of 5 common measures of EF and the stability of a latent EF construct. One hundred eighteen nondemented older adults were tested twice over a 4- to 8-week period. Findings demonstrated modest reliability of individual EF measures but very high stability of a latent EF construct. Relative contributions of each measure to the latent EF factor did not change across measurement trials. In addition, age-related effects on EF were similar at the 2 time points and were within the expected range. Implications for future studies of EF are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fourteen-year cohort-sequential analyses of adult intellectual development.

Provides a comprehensive analysis of data from 412 Ss (mean ages 22–67 yrs at 1st test) on the Primary Mental Abilities Test. Ss took part in 1 of 2 longitudinal sequences, 1956–1970 or 1963–1977. Comparable data are also reported on cross-sectional sequences collected in 1956, 1963, 1970, and 1977. A decline in intelligence became clearly evident after age 60 yrs, with from a third to a half standard deviation decrement over a 14-yr period. Contrary to earlier reports (e.g., K. W. Schaie and I. A. Parham, 1977), small but significant decrements were noted over the 53–67 yr age range. Cohort/sequential cohort effects, which were not attributable to age changes, were found for several subtests. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Change and stability in managers' gender roles.

The author examined gender roles among midlife managers over a 4-year period and the effects of career experiences. The findings supported a conceptualization of personality as relatively enduring but still open to change. Masculinity and femininity demonstrated differential stability and absolute stability, except in the case of women's femininity. Its magnitude decreased. At the same time, income change, promotion, and having a protégé were associated with increased masculinity and income change with increased femininity. A new child also meant increased masculinity for men. Furthermore, income change, promotion, turnover, being mentored, and having a protégé affected the relative placements of managers' scores over time. Many of the effects were different for men and women. The findings have important implications for adult development in the workplace. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)