Phthalate removal throughout wastewater treatment plant: Case study of Marne Aval station (France)

The fate of six phthalates: dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP) was investigated throughout wastewater treatment processes in the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of Marne Aval (France). That plant treats wastewater from a highly populated area and was used as a pilot station for development of nitrification processes.In wastewater, at each step of treatment, DEHP was always the major compound (9 to 44 µg L^− 1), followed by DEP (1.6 to 25 µg L^− 1). Other phthalates averaged 1 µg L^− 1 and DnOP remained close to the detection limit in nearly all cases.In sludge, the prevailing compound was also DEHP (72 µg g^− 1) which is consistent with its tendency to get sorbed upon suspended matter (SM). DnOP came in third, in relation with its resistance to biodegradation.For the studied period, the removal efficiency of DEHP from wastewater was about 78%. That removal seemed to proceed rather from particle settling than from biodegradation. A highly significant correlation (p < 0.001) was found between DEHP and SM concentrations throughout treatment processes. The other compounds: DMP, DEP, DnBP and BBP, displayed satisfactory efficiencies ranging from 68 to over 96% for the lighter ones obviously more easily degraded.Under rainy periods, the plant discharge impact upon Marne River quality in terms of phthalate fluxes, appeared to be minor as compared to the amount brought by the storm overflows in the same area. Downstream of the WWTP discharge, DEHP concentration remained under the European norm for surface water (NQE: 1.3 µg L^− 1).Our study documents the behaviour of phthalate esters throughout a WWTP which treatment device is used by 55% of the WWTP in the river Seine basin.     

Removal of organics in constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow: a review of the field experience

Constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow (HF CWs) have successfully been used for treatment various types of wastewater for more than four decades. Most systems have been designed to treat municipal sewage but the use for wastewaters from agriculture, industry and landfill leachate in HF CWs is getting more attention nowadays. The paper summarizes the results from more than 400 HF CWs from 36 countries around the world. The survey revealed that the highest removal efficiencies for BOD₅ and COD were achieved in systems treating municipal wastewater while the lowest efficiency was recorded for landfill leachate. The survey also revealed that HF CWs are successfully used for both secondary and tertiary treatment. The highest average inflow concentrations of BOD₅ (652 mg l^− 1) and COD (1865 mg l^− 1) were recorded for industrial wastewaters followed by wastewaters from agriculture for BOD₅ (464 mg l^− 1) and landfill leachate for COD (933 mg l^− 1). Hydraulic loading data reveal that the highest loaded systems are those treating wastewaters from agriculture and tertiary municipal wastewaters (average hydraulic loading rate 24.3 cm d^− 1). On the other hand, landfill leachate systems in the survey were loaded with average only 2.7 cm d^− 1. For both BOD₅ and COD, the highest average loadings were recorded for agricultural wastewaters (541 and 1239 kg ha^− 1 d^− 1, respectively) followed by industrial wastewaters (365 and 1212 kg ha^− 1 d^− 1, respectively). The regression equations for BOD₅ and COD inflow/outflow concentrations yielded very loose relationships. Much stronger relationships were found for inflow/outflow loadings and especially for COD. The influence of vegetation on removal of organics in HF CWs is not unanimously agreed but most studies indicated the positive effect of macrophytes.     

Influence of initial pesticide concentrations and plant population density on dimethomorph toxicity and removal by two duckweed species

Aquatic plants take up, transform and sequester organic contaminants and may therefore be used in phytoremediation for the removal of pollutants from wastewaters. A better understanding of factors affecting the rate of contaminant uptake by aquatic plants is needed to improve engineered systems for removal of pollutants from wastewaters. This work focused on the influence of initial concentrations of pesticide and population density of plants on toxicity and uptake of the fungicide dimethomorph by two duckweed species. An increased sensitivity to dimethomorph was observed with increasing duckweed population density. Less light, due to crowding, may explain this higher sensitivity and reduced removal rate. A positive relationship was also found between toxicity or contaminant uptake and initial pesticide concentration with a maximal removal of 41 and 26 µg g^− 1 fresh weight of dimethomorph (at 600 µg L^− 1 of dimethomorph and an initial density of 0.10 g E-flask^− 1) by Lemna minor and Spirodela polyrhiza, respectively. This research also indicated that these aquatic plants can efficiently eliminate organic contaminants and may ultimately serve as phytoremediation agents in the natural environment.     

Catchment condition as a major control on the quality of receiving basin sediments (Sydney Harbour, Australia)

The current work aimed to compile existing information to better understand the source, fate and effects of metallic contaminants in one catchment-receiving basin system (Iron Cove) in Sydney Harbour (Australia). Copper, Pb and Zn concentrations of potential source materials, i.e. soils (mean 62, 410 and 340 µg g^− 1, respectively) and road dust (mean 160, 490 and 520 µg g^− 1, respectively) and in materials being transported to the estuary, i.e. in gully pots (mean 110, 200 and 260 µg g^− 1 for Cu, Pb, and Zn, respectively), in bedload (mean 210, 880 and 1700 µg g^− 1, respectively) and particulates in canals draining the catchment (mean 325, 290 and 1865 µg g^− 1, respectively) were highly enriched. Estuarine sediments in the receiving basin are enriched 20 times over pre-anthropogenic concentrations and are toxic to benthic animals at the canal mouths. Stormwater remediation is required to reduce metal loads to the adjacent estuary.     

Analysis of dissolved microcystins in surface water samples from Kovada Lake, Turkey

Dissolved (extracellular) microcystin (MC) concentrations were determined at 3 sampling stations on Lake Kovada, Turkey. The dominant species of cyanobacteria found in August and September of 2006 were Microcystis aeruginosa, Synechococcus sp., Phormidium limosum, Phormidium formosa and Planktothrix limnetica. MC concentrations in water were measured by ELISA and MC variants were examined by HPLC-PDA. Quantitative analysis by HPLC indicated that five MC variants (MC-LR, -RR, -LA, -LW, -LF) were identified in water samples from Kovada Lake. The maximum concentration of dissolved MC-LW was 98.9 µg l^− 1 in October. MC-LR was only detected in May at a concentration of 0.5 µg l^− 1. The cross reactivity of the antibody (MC10E7) to variants such as MC-LA MC-LW & MC-LF was low. Hence the results determined by ELISA were lower than those determined by HPLC in September and October samples due to differences in the specificity of the antibody to MC variants. Total extraceullar MCs was quantified by ELISA and ranged from 0.73 to 48.5 µg MC-LR equivalents l^− 1, which in some cases exceeded the WHO provisional Guideline Value for MC-LR in drinking water. This study confirms that the lakes of Turkey should be monitored for toxic cyanobacteria and for MCs to avoid or reduce the potential exposure of people to these health hazards.     

The occurrence of antibiotics in an urban watershed: From wastewater to drinking water

The presence of 28 antibiotics in three hospital effluents, five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), six rivers and a drinking water storage catchment were investigated within watersheds of South-East Queensland, Australia. All antibiotics were detected at least once, with the exception of the polypeptide bacitracin which was not detected at all. Antibiotics were found in hospital effluent ranging from 0.01-14.5 μg L^− 1, dominated by the β-lactam, quinolone and sulphonamide groups. Antibiotics were found in WWTP influent up to 64 μg L^− 1, dominated by the β-lactam, quinolone and sulphonamide groups. Investigated WWTPs were highly effective in removing antibiotics from the water phase, with an average removal rate of greater than 80% for all targeted antibiotics. However, antibiotics were still detected in WWTP effluents in the low ng L^− 1 range up to a maximum of 3.4 μg L^− 1, with the macrolide, quinolone and sulphonamide antibiotics most prevalent. Similarly, antibiotics were detected quite frequently in the low ng L^− 1 range, up to 2 μg L^− 1 in the surface waters of six investigated rivers including freshwater, estuarine and marine samples. The total investigated antibiotic concentration (TIAC) within the Nerang River was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than all other rivers sampled. The absence of WWTP discharge to this river is a likely explanation for the significantly lower TIAC and suggests that WWTP discharges are a dominant source of antibiotics to investigated surface waters. A significant difference (p < 0.001) was identified between TIACs at surface water sites with WWTP discharge compared to sites with no WWTP discharge, providing further evidence that WWTPs are an important source of antibiotics to streams. Despite the presence of antibiotics in surface waters used for drinking water extraction, no targeted antibiotics were detected in any drinking water samples.     

The removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of receiving waters

A 5-month monitoring program was undertaken in South Wales in the UK to determine the fate of 55 pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs (PPCPs) in two contrasting wastewater plants utilising two different wastewater treatment technologies: activated sludge and trickling filter beds. The impact of treated wastewater effluent on the quality of receiving waters was also assessed.PPCPs were found to be present at high loads reaching 10 kg day⁻¹ in the raw sewage. Concentrations of PPCPs in raw sewage were found to correlate with their usage/consumption patterns in Wales and their metabolism. The efficiency of the removal of PPCPs was found to be strongly dependent on the technology implemented in the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). In general, the WWTP utilising trickling filter beds resulted in, on average, less than 70% removal of all 55 PPCPs studied, while the WWTP utilising activated sludge treatment gave a much higher removal efficiency of over 85%. The monitoring programme revealed that treated wastewater effluents were the main contributors to PPCPs concentrations (up to 3 kg of PPCPs day⁻¹) in the rivers studied. Bearing in mind that in the cases examined here the WWTP effluents were also major contributors to rivers' flows (dilution factor for the studied rivers did not exceed 23 times) the effect of WWTP effluent on the quality of river water is significant and cannot be underestimated.     

Comparison of toxicity and release rates of Cu and Zn from anti-fouling paints leached in natural and artificial brackish seawater

Biocide-containing anti-fouling paints are regulated and approved according to the added active ingredients, such as Cu. Biocide-free paints are considered to be less environmentally damaging and do not need an approval. Zn, a common ingredient in paints with the potential of causing adverse effects has received only minor attention. Laboratory experiments were conducted in artificial brackish seawater (ASW) and natural brackish seawater (NSW) to quantify release rates of Cu and Zn from biocide-containing and biocide-free labeled eroding anti-fouling paints used on commercial vessels as well as leisure boats. In addition, organisms from three trophic levels, the crustacean Nitocra spinipes, the macroalga Ceramium tenuicorne and the bacteria Vibrio fischeri, were exposed to Cu and Zn to determine the toxicity of these metals. The release rate of Cu in NSW was higher from the paints for professional use (3.2-3.6 µg cm⁻² d^− 1) than from the biocide leaching leisure boat paint (1.1 µg cm⁻² d^− 1). Biocide-free paints did leach considerably more Zn (4.4-8.2 µg cm⁻² d^− 1) than biocide-containing leisure boat paint (3.0 µg cm⁻² d^− 1) and ship paints (0.7-2.0 µg cm⁻² d^− 1). In ASW the release rates of both metals were notably higher than in NSW for most tested paints. The macroalga was the most sensitive species to both Cu (EC₅₀ = 6.4 µg l^− 1) and Zn (EC₅₀ = 25 µg l^− 1) compared to the crustacean (Cu, LC₅₀ = 2000 µg l^− 1 Zn, LC₅₀ = 890 µg l^− 1), and the bacteria (Cu, EC₅₀ = 800 µg l^− 1 and Zn, EC₅₀ = 2000 µg l^− 1). The results suggest that the amounts of Zn and Cu leached from anti-fouling paints may attain toxic concentrations in areas with high boat density. To fully account for potential ecological risk associated with anti-fouling paints, Zn as well as active ingredients should be considered in the regulatory process.     

Phthalates and nonylphenols in urban runoff: Occurrence, distribution and area emission factors

The urban water system is believed to be an important sink for the nonpoint-source pollutants nonylphenols and phthalates. The presence of nonylphenols (NPs), nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs), and eight phthalates was analyzed in urban stormwater and sediment from three catchment areas in Sweden. Emission loads for these substances were then calculated for a specific urban catchment area. In addition, substance distribution in road runoff passing through a sedimentation facility was modeled using a modified QWASI-model for chemical fate. High concentrations of DEHP, DIDP and DINP (≤ 48, 66 and 200 µg/g dw, respectively) as well as nonylphenol mono- and di-ethoxylate (6.6 and 20 µg/g dw, respectively) were found in the sediment. Aqueous concentrations of the pollutants varied considerably; branched NP was detected in concentrations up to 1.2 µg/L, whereas di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP), and diisononyl phthalate (DINP) were the most frequently detected phthalates in concentrations up to 5.0, 17 and 85 µg/L, respectively. The fate modeling demonstrated that predicted substance levels in water agreed well with measured levels, whereas the modeled sediment levels were underestimated. Calculation of catchment area emission factors from an urban highway environment revealed that as much as 2.1 kg of total phthalates and 200 g of NP and NPEOs may be emitted per hectare and year. The results indicate that all monitored phthalates, branched NPs and lower NPEOs are present in Swedish urban water systems. The long-chain phthalates DIDP and DINP are believed to occur at higher concentrations than other phthalates because of their higher environmental persistence and their increasing use in Sweden.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban surface dust of Guangzhou, China: Status, sources and human health risk assessment

Ninety-six urban surface dust samples collected from Guangzhou, a typical urban center in South China, were analyzed for 16 PAHs (2-6 rings). ∑ PAHs concentrations in the urban surface dust ranged from 0.84 to 12.3 μg/g with a mean of 4.80 μg/g. High molecular weight compounds (4-6 rings) contributed to 62 to 94% of ∑ PAHs mass in the surface dust samples. Four hotspots with highest ∑ PAHs were identified via kriging prediction mapping, representing the highly-urbanized regions: central downtown, highway and industrial area. Two major origins of PAHs inputs to urban surface dust were identified as vehicle emissions (51.9%) and coal combustion (26.8%). The 95% UCL of Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) due to human exposure to urban surface dust PAHs in central South China was 3.03 × 10⁻⁶ for children and 2.92 × 10⁻⁶ for adults.     

The intake of lead and associated metals by sheep grazing mining-contaminated floodplain pastures in mid-Wales, UK: II. Metal concentrations in blood and wool

Sheep grazing metal-contaminated floodplain pastures across mid-Wales ingest high concentrations of lead (Pb) in vegetation and directly in the form of soil. Sheep whole blood analysis indicated that Pb concentrations can be significantly elevated for animals grazing contaminated sites: in winter/spring, a median blood concentration of 147 µg Pb l^− 1 was found at the location with the highest soil enrichment of this metal compared to only 26 µg Pb l^− 1 for the control flock. There was within-flock variability in blood-Pb concentration, and overlap between blood-Pb ranges in animals grazing control and contaminated sites, although use of the Kruskal-Wallis H test established a number of significant (P < 0.05) differences between the blood-Pb content of flocks grazing the various study locations. Despite total daily intakes of up to 723 mg Pb d^− 1, only one individual sheep showed a blood-Pb content above the ‘normal safe’ concentration of 250 µg l^− 1. Blood and wool analyses were found to have limited value for the diagnosis of environmental exposure to Pb, and further consideration of metal accumulation in offal, bone and muscle tissue is recommended.     

Responses of streams in central Appalachian Mountain region to reduced acidic deposition—Comparisons with other regions in North America and Europe

Data from 5 wet deposition stations and 21 streams during 1980-2006 were analyzed to investigate chemical responses of streams to reduced acidic deposition in the central Appalachian Mountain region of West Virginia, USA. Wet deposition of acidic anions (i.e., sulfate, nitrate, and chloride) and hydrogen ions decreased significantly during the studied time period. Stream sulfate showed a delayed response to the reduced acidic deposition, and showed a decrease in the 2000s (− 5.54 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1) and the whole period (− 0.49 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1). No significant trend of stream nitrate + nitrite and chloride was observed. Stream alkalinity increased in the 1990s (+ 23.33 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1) and the whole period (+ 7.26 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1). Stream hydrogen ions decreased in the 1990s (− 0.002 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1), 2000s (− 0.001 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1), and the whole period (− 0.001 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1). Compared with most acidic streams and lakes in the United States and Europe, a lower decreasing rate of hydrogen ions and higher increasing rate of alkalinity were observed in the alkaline West Virginian streams in the 1990s. However, due to their initial negative or zero alkalinity values, those acidic streams showed a higher percent increase in alkalinity than that in the alkaline West Virginian streams (from 800 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1 to 1200 µeq L^− 1 yr^− 1). Total aluminum in the West Virginian streams decreased in the 1990s (− 0.67 µmol L^− 1 yr^− 1) and the whole period (− 0.22 µmol L^− 1 yr^− 1). The current study advanced our understanding of streams' responses to the reduced acidic deposition in the Mid-Appalachians since the passage of the 1970 and 1990 Amendments to the United States Clean Air Act (US CAAA).     

Removal of dissolved estrogen in sewage effluents by β-cyclodextrin polymer

Substances with estrogenic activity are found in effluents of municipal sewage plants and dairy farms. These effluents have the potential to induce feminization in male fish. In this study, cyclodextrin polymers (CDPs) that are insoluble in both polar and non-polar solvents were selected for the removal of dissolved estrogens in the effluent of a municipal sewage plant. The removal capacity of CDPs was high in the order of β-CDP ≥ γ-CDP ? α-CDP. The mechanism for adsorption of estrogens to β-CDP was not only due to a host-guest interaction as molecular recognition by β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), but also due to adsorption by the polymer matrix. β-CDP of 0.2% (w/v) removed 17β-estradiol (E2) of about 70% from 10⁻¹¹ mol/L, and more than 90% from ≥ 10⁻¹⁰ mol/L. The removal ratios of E2 in the presence of cholesterols, which are contained at higher concentrations than estrogens in sewage effluents and are adsorptive competitor for β-CDP, were about 85% at a cholesterol/E2 molar ratio of 100 and > 90% at molar ratios of 0.1, 1, and 10. The effluent from a municipal sewage plant had estrogenic activity corresponding to 5.5 × 10⁻¹¹ molE2/L by yeast two-hybrid assay. The estrogens in the effluent were also removed > 90% by the β-CDP treatment. Therefore, β-CDP is able to remove dissolved estrogens over a wide range of concentrations in the presence of various contaminants such as wastewaters.     

Distribution of the solvent-extractable organic compounds in fine (PM1) and coarse (PM1-10) particles in urban, industrial and forest atmospheres of Northern Algeria

The distribution of the solvent-extractable organic components in the fine (PM₁) and coarse (PM_1-10) fractions of airborne particulate was studied for the first time in Algeria. That was done during October 2006 concurrently in a big industrial district, a busy urban area, and a forest national park located in Algiers, Boumerdes, Blida, respectively, which are the three biggest provinces of Northern Algeria. Most of the organic matter identified in both particle size ranges consisted of n-alkanes and n-alkanoic acids, with minor contributions coming from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs), oxygenated PAHs, and other polar compounds (e.g., caffeine and nicotine). The potential emission sources of airborne contaminants were reconciled by combining the values of n-alkane carbon preference index (CPI) and selected diagnostic ratios of PAHs, calculated in both size ranges. The mean cumulative concentrations of PAHs reached 3.032 ng m^− 3 at the Boumerdes site, urban, 80% of which (i.e. 2.246 ng m^− 3) in the PM₁ fraction, 6.462 ng m^− 3 at Rouiba-Réghaia, industrial district, (5.135 ng m^− 3 or 80% in PM₁), and 0.512 ng m^− 3 at Chréa, forested mountains (0.370 ng m^− 3 or 72% in PM₁). Similar patterns were shown by all organic groups, which resulted overall enriched in the fine particles at the three sites. Carcinogenic and mutagenic potencies associated to PAHs were evaluated by multiplying the concentrations of “toxic” compounds times the corresponding potency factors normalized vs. benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), and were found to be both acceptable.     

Nitrogen and phosphorus removal from an abattoir wastewater in a SBR with aerobic granular sludge

The formation and performance of granular sludge was studied in an 8 l sequencing batch reactor (SBR) treating an abattoir (slaughterhouse) wastewater. Influent concentrations averaged 1520 mg l⁻¹ volatile suspended solids (VSS), 7685 mg l⁻¹ Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 1057 mg l⁻¹ total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), 217 mg l⁻¹ total P. The COD loading was 2.6 kg m⁻³ d⁻¹. The SBR was seeded with flocculating sludge from a SBR with an 1 h settle time, but granules developed within 4 days by reducing the settle time to 2 min. The SBR cycle also had 120 min mixed (anaerobic) fill, 220 min aerated react, and 18 min draw/idle. The granules had a mean diameter of 1.7 mm, a specific gravity of 1.035, a density of 62 g VSS l⁻¹, a zone settling velocity (ZSV) of 51 m h⁻¹, and a sludge volume index (SVI) of 22 ml g⁻¹. Without optimizing process conditions, removal of COD and P were over 98%, and removal of N and VSS were over 97%. Nitrification and denitrification occurred simultaneously during react. The results indicate that conventional SBRs treating wastewaters with flocculating sludge can be converted to granular SBRs by reducing the settle time.     

Seasonal occurrence and behavior of synthetic musks (SMs) during wastewater treatment process in Shanghai, China

Synthetic musks (SMs), as a group of the widely used fragrance ingredients, are not completely removed from the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Although the increasing concerns have been focused on the removal and fate of these compounds in WWTP, little is known related to SMs removal mechanism with the seasonal variation, especially, the detail removal contribution of bioreactor in different seasons. In this study, in order to clearly understand the complicated behavior of SMs during wastewater treatment process, we determined four synthetic musks, galaxolide (HHCB), tonalide (AHTN), musk xylene (MX) and musk ketone (MK) in a domestic WWTP in Shanghai, China during four seasons (with the particular interests on the seasonal contribution of individual bio-unit). Operating temperature combined other seasonal elements (e.g. illumination, biomass and bioactivity) render influences on the elimination of SMs in different treatment units, particular in the bioreactor. The results showed that the higher operating temperature would benefit the elimination of SMs. The overall mass loss of total SMs during the wastewater treatment process were as high as 131.7 g d^− 1 (28.3 g d^− 1 loss in bioreactor) in summer followed by 109.1 g d^− 1 (29.8 g d^− 1 loss in bioreactor) in fall. Contributions of individual bio-unit (anaerobic, anoxic and oxic unit) to the total SMs elimination in bioreactor were seasonal fluctuated, e.g. the anoxic unit made a remarkable contribution (almost 90%) in fall, whereas there were nearly equivalent contributions of three bio-units in summer.     

Comparative microscale analysis of the effects of triclosan and triclocarban on the structure and function of river biofilm communities

The broad spectrum antimicrobials triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) are commonly detected in the environment. However, there is very limited understanding of the aquatic ecological implications of these agents. During this study, river biofilms were cultivated using 10 µg l^− 1 of TCS or TCC and the equivalent in nutrients (carbon, nitrogen) over a developmental period of 8 weeks. Confocal laser microscopy showed that the biofilm communities developing under the influence of TCS and TCC had community architecture and composition different from either control or nutrient exposed communities. Microscale analyses of biofilm community structure indicated a significant reduction in algal biomass (p < 0.05) as a result of exposure to either TCS or TCC. Thymidine incorporation did not detect significant differences between control and treated communities. The use of carbon utilization assays based on growth indicated that, in general, TCS and TCC suppressed utilization. The community was altered from one dominated by autotrophic processes to one dominated by heterotrophic processes. Both TCS and TCC treatments resulted in significant (p < 0.05) alterations in the composition of the EPS matrix of the communities, suggesting significant changes in community composition. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and PCA-ANOSIM analyses indicated a significant change occurred in the bacterial community as a consequence of TCS treatments. Enumeration of micrometazoa and protozoa revealed an increase in micrometazoan numbers over control values, whereas no clear impact on protozoa was detected in any treatment. This study indicated significant effects of 10 µg l^− 1 TCS and TCC on microbial community composition, algal biomass, architecture and activity.     

Concentrations, sources, and spatial distribution of individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in agricultural soils in the Eastern part of the EU: Poland as a case study

Soils from agricultural areas receive unsatisfactory attention as regards the contamination with organic pollutants. To answer those needs the contents of the sixteen individual PAH compounds were determined (GC/MS technique) in agricultural soils in Poland. The samples (n = 216) were collected from the upper layer of arable land in the year 2005. Half of the samples represented typical rural areas, while the rest derived from the territories potentially subjected to the urban/industrial pressure of various intensity. The mean (geometric) content of individual compounds varied from 1 μg kg^− 1 for acenaphtylene to 55 μg kg^− 1 for fluoranthene with the highest contributions (11.6%-12.9%) of phenanthrene, fluoranthene and pyrene. Higher molecular weight PAHs (4 rings) were strongly linked mutually and with the ∑16PAHs. They contributed substantially (73%) to the overall content of PAHs, which implies domination of anthropogenic sources. The calculated molecular indexes suggest that most of those PAHs derive from the combustion of coal, the main energy source in Poland. Simultaneously, the concentrations of lower molecular weight compounds seem to reflect the background, “natural” PAH compounds, which represent mainly atmospherically distributed emission. The division of the samples into groups describing geographical regions and landscape type enabled evaluation of the spatial trends in contamination of soils with PAH compounds. The most pronounced effect of spatial parameters corresponded to PAHs > 4 rings, while lower molecular weight compounds showed more homogeneous concentration through the country.     

Gas-particle partitioning and seasonal variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere of Zonguldak, Turkey

Atmospheric concentrations and gas-particle partition coefficients were determined for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere of Zonguldak, Turkey between May 2007 and April 2008. Total concentrations of PAHs ranged from 0.52 ng m^− 3 to 636 ng m^− 3 in the particle phase and from 5.60 ng m^− 3 to 725 ng m^− 3 in the gas phase. The annual mean concentrations of PAHs in the particle and gas phase were found to be 114 ng m^− 3 and 184 ng m^− 3, respectively. Significant seasonal variations of particle and gas phase PAH concentrations were observed with higher levels during cold period. The distribution of PAHs between the particle and gas phase was investigated and it was found that three ring PAHs were associated primarily with the gas phase, four ring PAHs were distributed almost equally between the two phases and five and six ring PAHs were mainly associated with the particle phase. Gas-particle partition coefficients (K_p) of PAHs have been calculated and correlated with their subcooled liquid vapor pressures (P_Lº). The slopes (m_r) varied from − 0.63 to − 0.23 were far from the theoretical value (−1) due to the short distance between the sampling point and the emission sources. The relationships between temperature and gas phase partial pressures of PAHs were examined using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation and the obtained positive slopes indicated that PAH concentrations increased with decreasing air temperature as a result of high dominance of local emissions.     

Norovirus and FRNA bacteriophage determined by RT-qPCR and infectious FRNA bacteriophage in wastewater and oysters

Norovirus (NoV), the leading cause of adult non-bacterial gastroenteritis can be commonly detected in wastewater but the extent of NoV removal provided by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is unclear. We monitored a newly commissioned WWTP with UV disinfection on a weekly basis over a six month period for NoV using RT-qPCR and for FRNA bacteriophage GA using both RT-qPCR (total concentration) and a plaque assay (infectious concentration). Mean concentrations of NoV GI and GII in influent wastewater were reduced by 0.25 and 0.41 log₁₀ genome copies 100 ml⁻¹, respectively by the WWTP. The mean concentration of total FRNA bacteriophage GA was reduced by 0.35 log genome copies 100 ml⁻¹ compared to a reduction of infectious FRNA bacteriophage GA of 2.13 log PFU 100 ml⁻¹. A significant difference between concentrations of infectious and total FRNA bacteriophage GA was observed in treated, but not in untreated wastewaters. We conclude that RT-qPCR in isolation underestimates the reduction of infectious virus during wastewater treatment. We further compared the concentrations of infectious virus in combined sewer overflow (CSO) and UV treated effluents using FRNA bacteriophage GA. A greater percentage (98%) of infectious virus is released in CSO discharges than UV treated effluent (44%). Following a CSO discharge, concentrations of NoV GII and infectious FRNA bacteriophage GA in oysters from less than the limit of detection to 3150 genome copies 100 g⁻¹ and 1050 PFU 100 g⁻¹ respectively.