Levels of brominated flame retardants and methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers in eggs of white-tailed sea eagles breeding in different regions of Sweden

Forty-four unhatched eggs from white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), collected in four regions in Sweden in 1992-2005, were analysed for contents of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and naturally occurring methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-PBDEs). Two freshwater areas—Lapland in the arctic zone (LAP) and inland lakes in central and southern Sweden (INL), and two brackish marine areas in the Baltic Sea—the south Bothnian Sea (SB) and the Baltic Proper (BP)—were chosen for comparison of the concentrations and congener distributions in white-tailed sea eagles with different diet and migratory patterns. The geometric mean (GM) concentrations (ng/g lipid weight (l.w.)) of ∑₅PBDE (BDE-47, -99, -100, -153, and -154) were 720 (LAP), 1500 (INL), 4 100 (SB) and 4 300 (BP), whereas BDE-209 was not detectable in any of the samples. The GM concentrations for HBCD content in LAP, INL, SB and BP were 60, 90, 150 and 140 ng/g l.w., respectively, whereas the corresponding values for BB-153 were 20, 30, 100 and 120 ng/g l.w. In general, the eggs from all four regions demonstrated similar patterns of PBDE congeners, with concentrations in descending order of BDE-47, -100, -99, -153 and -154. The ∑₃-MeO-BDEs (6-MeO-BDE47, 2′-MeO-BDE68, 5-Cl-6-MeO-BDE47) for these same regions (as above) were 80, 40, 340 and 240 ng/g l.w., respectively. ∑₃-MeO-BDEs for LAP and INL (freshwaters) were significantly different, whereas those for SB and BP were not. The presence of MeO-PBDEs in all of the inland samples indicates that there is an as-yet-unidentified source of these compounds in the freshwater ecosystem. Between the two more contaminated subpopulations from the Baltic Sea coast, SB showed significantly lower productivity than BP, but no correlation was found between productivity and PBDE, PBB and HBCD at the concentrations found in this study.     

PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in home-produced eggs from Belgium: Levels, contamination sources and health risks

This paper discusses the dioxin TEQ levels as determined by the chemically activated luciferase gene expression assay (CALUX) and by HRGC-HRMS in eggs, soils, faeces and kitchen waste samples obtained in the CONTEGG study. The samples were collected in each Belgian province at private homes and in small gardens where chickens are held. The CALUX levels for eggs sampled in autumn were higher than the levels in eggs obtained at the same locations in spring (median values of 5.86 and 4.08 pg CALUX TEQ/g fat, respectively). The total WHO-TEQ levels in eggs, determined by HRGC-HRMS, ranged from 3.29 to 95.35 pg TEQ/g fat in autumn and from 1.50 to 64.79 pg TEQ/g fat in spring. In the soils on which the chickens forage, levels of 2.51-11.35 pg I-TEQ/g in autumn and 2.00-7.86 pg I-TEQ/g in spring were found. The congener pattern of PCDD/Fs in the eggs, soils and faeces was dominated by OCDD, in addition to 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDD, OCDF and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDF. The predominant dioxin-like PCBs were PCB118, PCB 105 and PCB 156. The dioxin-like PCBs contributed on average 47%, 14% and 20% to the total WHO-TEQ in eggs, soils and faeces, respectively. Kitchen waste samples were very low-contaminated with dioxin-like compounds. The present results showed a good agreement between egg and soil TEQ levels for PCDD/Fs but not for dioxin-like PCBs. This study showed that current soil levels found in some private gardens do not lead to egg levels below the current EU maximal level of 6 pg total TEQ/g fat for dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs. The consumers of the analysed eggs attained 5-79% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 14 pg TEQ/kg bw for dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs by exposure to their home-produced eggs only.     

Assessment of the chemical contamination in home-produced eggs in Belgium: General overview of the CONTEGG study

This overview paper describes a study conducted for the Belgian Federal Public Service of Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment during 2006-2007. Home-produced eggs from Belgian private owners of hens were included in a large study aiming to determine concentration levels of various environmental contaminants. By means of the analyses of soil samples and of kitchen waste samples, obtained from the same locations, an investigation towards the possible sources of contaminants was possible. Eggs, soils, faeces and kitchen waste samples were checked for the presence of dioxins, PCBs (including dioxin-like PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, trace elements, PAHs, brominated flame retardants and mycotoxins. The study design, sampling methodology and primary conclusions of the study are given. It was found that in some cases dioxin-like compounds were present at levels that are of concern for the health of the egg consumers. Therefore, measures to limit their contamination in eggs, produced by hens of private owners, were proposed and deserve further attention.     

PCB and organochlorine pesticides in home-produced eggs in Belgium

The level of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and persistent organochlorinated pesticides (OC) in home-produced eggs was investigated in Belgium. The concentration of dichlorodiphenytrichloroethane (DDT) is above the norm for 17% of the eggs collected during the spring on 58 different locations. For PCB, aldrin, dieldrin, and chlordane, 3-5% of the samples are above the norm too. These levels are surprisingly high for compounds banned for about 30 years. Higher concentrations in home-produced eggs are expected compared to battery eggs because of contact with the environment and especially the soil. For ten selected locations, the concentration in soils, excreta and feed was measured, but no simple correlation between egg and feed or soil level could be established. Hexachlorohexane, endosulfan, endrin, methoxychlor and nitrofen were not detected in any sample.     

Brominated flame retardants in the Arctic environment — trends and new candidates

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) containing two to 10 bromines are ubiquitous in the Arctic, in both abiotic and biotic samples. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) is also ubiquitous in the Arctic, with the γ-HBCD isomer predominating in air, the α-HBCD isomer predominating in biota and similar concentrations of α-, β- and γ-HBCD found in marine sediments. Other brominated flame retardants (BFRs) found in some Arctic samples are polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), hexabromobenzene (HxBBz), pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), pentabromotoluene (PBT), and 1,2-dibromo-4-(1,2-dibromoethyl)cyclohexane (TBECH). Temporal trends of tetra- to heptaBDEs and HBCD show increasing concentrations or a tendency to levelling off depending on the matrix (air, sediment, biota) and location, but no uniform picture for the Arctic emerges. BDE-209 concentrations are increasing in air. PBDEs and HBCD spatial trends in seabirds and marine mammals are similar to those seen previously for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), with highest concentrations found in organisms from East Greenland and Svalbard. These trends indicate western Europe and eastern North America as important source regions of these compounds via long range atmospheric transport and ocean currents. Latitudinal trends showed lower concentrations and fluxes of PBDEs at higher latitudes. The tetra-hexaBDEs and α-HBCD biomagnify in Arctic food webs. Results for BDE-209 are more conflicting, showing either only low or no biomagnification potential. PBDE and HBCD concentrations are lower in terrestrial organisms and higher in marine top predators such as some killer whale populations in Alaska and glaucous gulls from the Barents Sea area. Higher concentrations are seen near populated areas indicating local sources. Findings of BTBPE, HxBBz, PBEB, PBT and TBECH in seabirds and/or marine mammals indicate that these compounds reach the Arctic, most probably by long range atmospheric transport and accumulate in higher trophic level organisms and that increasing use as PBDE replacements will lead to increasing concentrations.     

Transfer of soil contaminants to home-produced eggs and preventive measures to reduce contamination

Uptake studies have shown that chickens foraging on soils contaminated with environmental pollutants accumulate these compounds into their eggs. Home-produced eggs thereby show higher contamination levels than commercially produced eggs. It was the aim of this study to identify the major source of two environmental pollutants in home-produced eggs, i.e. dioxins and lead, to formulate preventive measures to reduce the contamination levels of such eggs, and to assess the feasibility of the formulated measures in terms of the perception and behavior of private egg producers towards such measures. The major source of dioxins and lead in eggs, i.e. the soil, was identified by transfer calculations of the pollutants from the feed and soil towards eggs. Preventive measures to reduce soil intake or geophagy and hence egg contamination levels, were formulated and their feasibility evaluated through interviews with private chicken owners. The results show that a paved surface inside the henhouse, an indoor feeding place and providing a sufficient surface area per chicken were considered the most appropriate in terms of feasibility and willingness to apply the measures by the private chicken owners. To enhance the effect of the measures, a combination of measures supported and promoted at policy level is considered as a good strategy to reduce contamination levels in home-produced eggs.     

Mycotoxin analyses in some home produced eggs in Belgium reveal small contribution to the total daily intake

Low levels of deoxynivalenol (DON, range: 2.6-17.9 ng/g) and its metabolite de-epoxy-DON (DOM-1, range: 2.4-23.7 ng/g) were found in 20 home-produced egg samples collected in Belgium during autumn 2006 (from 10 breeders) and spring 2007 (same breeders). DON intake assessment showed that the consumption of these eggs may contribute to less than 1% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 1 μg/kg body weight established by FAO/WHO. None of the egg samples analyzed had quantifiable levels of zearalenone (ZEA), α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT). Intake of DON, ZEA, OTA and CIT via the consumption of home produced eggs seems not to be a matter of concern. Despite this, we recommend to continue in screening other eggs allowing to increase the sample size and the subsequent conclusion for mycotoxin contamination in eggs. As home produced food is generally not submitted to any compliance control and may be consumed in large quantities by their producers and other household members, it is worthwhile to further pay attention to the quality of feed as well as the environment in which the hens live.     

Effects of laying order and experimentally increased egg production on organic pollutants in eggs of a terrestrial songbird species, the great tit (Parus major)

In this study, concentrations and profiles of organic pollutants were investigated in a passerine species with a large clutch size, the great tit (Parus major). In the first clutches, mean egg concentrations decreased significantly in relation to the laying order from 3025 ± 416 ng/g lw to 2267 ± 386 ng/g lw for sum PCBs and from 989 ± 339 ng/g lw to 695 ± 320 ng/g lw for sum DDTs. Sum PBDE concentrations also decreased in relation to the laying order from 68 ± 10 ng/g lw to 53 ± 11 ng/g lw, but not significantly. Although laying order effects were found, variation in concentrations within clutches was smaller than among clutches. To further investigate the impact of laying large numbers of eggs on levels and profiles of organic pollutants, initiation of replacement clutches was experimentally induced. Mean sum PCB and sum PBDE concentrations were significantly lower in eggs of replacement clutches compared to first clutches. In addition, first clutches had a higher contribution of the higher chlorinated and more persistent PCB congeners, CB 170, 180 and 183, and a lower contribution of CB 52, 95 and 149 compared to replacement clutches. Because of the differences in concentrations and profiles between the first and replacement clutches, the combined use of eggs from both the first and replacement clutches for monitoring purposes is not recommended. In conclusion, we suggest that, due to the larger variation among clutches compared to the variation within clutches, one randomly collected great tit egg from a first clutch is useful as a biomonitoring tool for organic pollutants. To our knowledge, this is the first study in which the impact of an experimentally increased clutch size on the levels and profiles of contaminants in eggs has been investigated.     

The use of blue tit eggs as a biomonitoring tool for organohalogenated pollutants in the European environment

In the present study, large scale geographical variation in the occurrence of organohalogenated pollutants (OHPs) was investigated throughout Europe using eggs of a terrestrial resident passerine species, the blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus). Blue tit eggs from 10 sampling locations, involving suburban, rural and remote areas, in 7 European countries were collected and analysed. Sum polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels ranged from 150 ng/g lipid weight (lw) to 2003 ng/g lw. Sum polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) ranged from 3.95 ng/g lw to 114 ng/g lw. As expected, PCB and PBDE concentrations were significantly higher in the sampled suburban locations compared to the rural and remote locations. Sum organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) ranged from 122 ng/g lw to 775 ng/g lw. OCP concentrations were, against the expectations, found to be lower in the rural sampling locations compared to the other locations. Contamination profiles of PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs differed also among the sampling locations, which may be due to local contamination sources. Finally, we compared the results of this study with previously reported OHP concentrations in the eggs of a closely related species, the great tit (Parus major), from the same sampling locations in Europe. We found no differences in concentrations between the species. In addition, we found a significant, positive correlation between the sum PCB concentrations in blue tit eggs and great tit eggs, suggesting similar exposure pathways, mechanisms of accumulation and maternal transfer of PCBs. In conclusion, our results suggest the usefulness of eggs from passerine birds as a biomonitoring tool for OHPs on a large geographical scale.     

Trace elements in home-produced eggs in Belgium: Levels and spatiotemporal distribution

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the levels of arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper and zinc in home-produced eggs, soils and kitchen waste samples of private chicken owners in Belgium, and to determine spatiotemporal differences in trace element contents in eggs. Eggs were sampled in all provinces of Belgium in autumn 2006 and spring 2007. A total number of 59 private chicken owners participated in the study. Trace elements were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry except for mercury, which was determined by atomic absorption of mercury vapour. The mean fresh weight concentrations in eggs in autumn and spring respectively were < 8.0 and < 8.0 µg/kg for arsenic, 0.5 and < 0.5 µg/kg for cadmium, 116 and 74 µg/kg for lead, 0.43 and 0.52 mg/kg for copper, 20.3 and 19.2 mg/kg for zinc, and 3.15 and 4.44 µg/kg for mercury. Analysis of variance determined significant differences in some trace element concentrations in eggs among seasons and regions in Belgium. Average concentrations of arsenic, cadmium and mercury corresponded well with values measured in other countries, while copper and zinc concentrations were within the same order of magnitude as in other countries. Average lead concentrations were high compared to concentrations in eggs from other countries and correlated well with lead concentrations in soil, indicating that the soil is an important source. Other sources of trace elements in eggs might be home-grown vegetables and forage (grass and herbs), and indirectly, air pollution.     

Classic and novel brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in common sole (Solea solea L.) from main nursery zones along the French coasts

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) were investigated in juvenile common sole from nursery zones situated along the French coast in 2007, 2008 and 2009. Extensive identification was performed with regard to PBDEs, novel BFRs 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), and other non-PBDE BFRs, namely, hexabromobenzene (HBB) and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexabromobiphenyl (BB-153). Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations (Σ 14 congeners) ranged from 0.01 ng/g to 0.16 ng/g wet weight (ww) in muscle, and 0.07 ng/g to 2.8 ng/g ww in liver. Concentrations were in the lower range of those reported in the literature in other European locations. Lower PBDE concentrations, condition indices and lipid contents were observed in the Seine estuary in 2009, possibly in relation to a lower water flow. The PBDE patterns and ratios we observed suggested that juvenile sole have a relative high metabolic degradation capacity. Non-PBDE BFRs were detected at lower levels than PBDEs, i.e., within the < method detection limit - 0.005 ng/g ww range in muscle, and < method detection limit - 0.2 ng/g ww range in liver. The data obtained is of particular interest for the future monitoring of these compounds in the environment.     

Exposure to organophosphate and polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants via indoor dust and childhood asthma

Although the ubiquitous detection of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs) in indoor dust has raised health concerns, only very few epidemiological studies have assessed their impact on human health. Inhalation of dust is one of the exposure routes of FRs, especially in children and can be hazardous for the respiratory health. Moreover, PFRs are structurally similar to organophosphate pesticides, which have been associated with allergic asthma. Thus, we investigated whether the concentrations of PFRs and PBDEs in indoor dust are associated with the development of childhood asthma. We selected 110 children who developed asthma at 4 or at 8 years old and 110 matched controls from a large prospective birth cohort (BAMSE – Barn, Allergy, Milieu Stockholm Epidemiology). We analyzed the concentrations of 7 PFRs and 21 PBDEs in dust collected around 2 months after birth from the mother's mattress. The abundance rank in dust was as follows: TBOEP?TPHP>mmp‐TMPP>EHDPHP~TDCIPP>TCEP~TCIPP~BDE‐209?BDE‐99>BDE‐47>BDE‐153>BDE‐183>BDE‐100. There was no positive association between the FRs in mattress dust and the development of childhood asthma. In contrast, dust collected from mattresses of the mothers of children who would develop asthma contained significant lower levels of TPHP and mmp‐TMPP. This study provides data on a wide range of PFRs and PBDEs in dust samples and development of asthma in children.     

Organohalogenated contaminants in eggs of rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome) and imperial shags (Phalacrocorax atriceps) from the Falkland Islands

In this study, we evaluated the use of seabird eggs of two common bird species from the Falkland Islands as bioindicators of contamination with organohalogenated contaminants (OHCs). We compared contamination levels and profiles of different OHCs between eggs of the rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome) and the imperial shag (Phalacrocorax atriceps). In addition, laying order effects on OHC concentrations and profiles were also investigated in both species. For polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) as well as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), concentrations were significantly lower in eggs of rockhopper penguins (27.6 ± 0.70 ng/g lw, 56.5 ± 1.33 ng/g lw and 0.98 ± 0.04 ng/g lw, respectively) compared to the imperial shags (140 ± 5.54 ng/g lw, 316 ± 11.53 ng/g lw, 1.92 ± 0.15 ng/g lw, respectively). On the other hand, 2′MeO-BDE 68 and 6MeO-BDE 47, two brominated compounds of reported natural origin, were significantly higher in the penguin eggs (0.55 ± 0.05 ng/g lw and 7.01 ± 0.64 ng/g lw, respectively) compared to the shag eggs (0.17 ± 0.03 ng/g lw and 0.50 ± 0.06 ng/g lw, respectively). In addition, PCB, OCP and PBDE contamination profiles differed markedly between the two species. Various factors, such as diet, feeding behaviour, migratory behaviour and species-specific metabolism, may be responsible for the observed results. For both rockhopper penguins and imperial shags, PCB, OCP and PBDE concentrations and profiles did not significantly change in relation to the laying order. This suggests that, for both species, any egg of a clutch is useful as a biomonitoring tool for OHCs. Although our results showed that OHCs have also reached the Falkland Islands, concentrations were relatively low compared to other studies. However, future monitoring may be warranted to assess temporal trends of different OHCs.     

Indoor organophosphate and polybrominated flame retardants in Tokyo

In Japan, organophosphate and polybrominated flame retardants are used in building materials and electric appliances to protect them from fire hazards. In this study, to identify the emission sources of these flame retardants to indoor air, the migration rates (flux) of organophosphate and polybrominated flame retardants from building materials and electrical appliances to solid extraction disks that were placed in contact with the interior surfaces were measured. In addition to the migration test, indoor air and outdoor air concentrations of these flame retardants were investigated. With regard to building materials in a newly built house, triethylphosphate (TEP) and tributylphosphate (TBP) were detected in the wall and ceiling coverings, and tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBEP) was detected in the wooden flooring cleaned with a floor polish agent. With regard to electrical appliances, triphenylphosphate (TPHP) was predominantly detected in computer monitors and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) in television (TV) sets, with the highest median levels. Among the polybrominated compounds, only 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) was detected from a few old TV sets manufactured before 1995. In an indoor and outdoor air survey, nine organophosphates and nine polybrominated flame retardants were detected from indoor air. In outdoor air, only four organophosphate flame retardants were detected. The maximum level of indoor organophosphate compounds was 1260 ng/m(3) with tris(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) phosphate (TCPP), and that of polybrominated compounds was 29.5 ng/m(3) with hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD). Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) was not detected in this study, although it has the largest demand among flame retardants in Japan. The results of the migration test and the indoor air survey revealed that in indoor air, organophosphate compounds were more predominant than polybrominated compounds in Tokyo. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: Polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are commonly used as flame retardants in plastics. The use of these two compounds in electric appliances will be banned in 2007 by the EU Directives on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances (RoHS) in electrical and electronic equipment. In Japan, the use of PBB was banned and that of PBDE diminished in the early 1990s by the self-imposed controls of the Japanese Flame Retardants Conference (Akutu and Hori, 2004). In Japan, the predominantly used organic flame retardants were tetrabromobisphenol A and organophosphate compounds. Tetrabromobisphenol A has been reported to disrupt endocrine systems (Kitamura et al., 2005), and some organophosphate flame retardants were recently reported to have neurochemical hazardous effects. Furthermore, organophosphate compounds were suspected to cause endocrine-disrupting effects (Fang et al., 2003; Ohyama et al., 2005) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Winrow et al., 2003). In this study, organophosphate and polybrominated flame retardants were surveyed in indoor environments in Tokyo.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in road and farmland soils from an e-waste recycling region in Southern China: Concentrations, source profiles, and potential dispersion and deposition

The present study analyzed road soils collected near the dismantling workshops of an e-waste recycling region in South China to determine the PBDE profiles. Farmland soils at a distance of about 2 km from the dismantling workshops were also collected to evaluate the potential dispersion and deposition of PBDEs in the surrounding environment. Total PBDE concentrations ranged from 191 to 9156 ng/g dry weight in road soils and from 2.9 to 207 ng/g dry weight in farmland soils, respectively. Three PBDE source profiles were observed from the road soils by principal component analysis, and were compared with the congener patterns in different technical products. Elevated abundances of octa- and nona-congeners were found in the “deca-” derived PBDEs as compared with the deca-BDE products. The results in this study suggest that debromination of BDE 209 may have occurred during the use of electric and electronic equipment and/or another technical formulation (Bromkal 79-8DE) was also likely the source of octa- and nona-congeners in e-wastes. Comparison of the PBDE patterns in road and farmland soils implied that the PBDEs in farmland soils have been subject to complex environmental processes.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations and resulting exposure in homes in California: relationships among passive air,surface wipe and dust concentrations,and temporal variability

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants in furniture foam, electronics, and other home furnishings. A field study was conducted that enrolled 139 households from California, which has had more stringent flame retardant requirements than other countries and areas. The study collected passive air, floor and indoor window surface wipes, and dust samples (investigator collected using an HVS3 and vacuum cleaner) in each home. PentaBDE and BDE209 were detected in the majority of the dust samples and many floor wipe samples, but the detection in air and window wipe samples was relatively low. Concentrations of each PBDE congener in different indoor environmental media were moderately correlated, with correlation coefficients ranging between 0.42 and 0.68. Correlation coefficients with blood levels were up to 0.65 and varied between environmental media and age group. Both investigator‐collected dust and floor wipes were correlated with serum levels for a wide range of congeners. These two sample types also had a relatively high fraction of samples with adequate mass for reliable quantification. In 42 homes, PBDE levels measured in the same environmental media in the same home 1 year apart were statistically correlated (correlation coefficients: 0.57–0.90), with the exception of BDE209 which was not well correlated longitudinally.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge and treated biosolids: Effect factors and mass balance

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants have been consistently detected in sewage sludge and treated biosolids. Two hundred and eighty-eight samples including primary sludge (PS), waste biological sludge (WBS) and treated biosolids from fifteen wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Canada were analyzed to investigate the factors affecting accumulation of PBDEs in sludge and biosolids. Factors examined included environmental/sewershed conditions and operational parameters of the WWTPs. PBDE concentrations in PS, WBS and treated biosolids were 230–82,000 ng/g, 530–8800 ng/g and 420–6000 ng/g, respectively; BDE-209,-99, and -47 were the predominant congeners. Concentrations were influenced by industrial input, leachate, and temperature. Several examinations including the measurement of BDE-202 indicated minimal debromination during wastewater treatment. Estimated solids-liquid distribution coefficients were moderately correlated to hydraulic retention time, solids loading rate, mixed liquor suspended solids, solids retention time, and removal of organic solids, indicating that PBDE partitioning to solids can be optimized by WWTPs' operational conditions. Solids treatment type strongly affected PBDE levels in biosolids: 1.5 times increase after solids digestion, therefore, digestion efficiency could be a potential factor for variability of PBDEs concentration. In contrast, alkaline treatment reduced PBDE concentrations in biosolids. Overall, mass balance approaches confirmed that PBDEs were removed from the liquid stream through partitioning to solids. Variability of PBDE levels in biosolids could result in different PBDEs burdens to agricultural land, and different exposure levels to soil organisms.     

Levels of brominated flame retardants and other pesistent organic pollutants in breast milk samples from Limpopo Province, South Africa

The non-occupational exposure to brominated flame retardants, and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was studied by collecting human breast milk samples from mothers residing in Thohoyandou area, a rural district in the Limpopo Province, northern part of South Africa (SA). Of all collected samples to be analysed (n = 28), those with large enough milk volumes, (n = 14) were quantified for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (9 congeners: BDE-28, 47, 66, 99, 100, 138, 153, 154, and 183) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) on a GC equipped with dual capillary columns and dual electron-capture detectors (ECD). The levels of PBDE congeners (median sumBDE 1.3 ng/g of lipids) and of HBCD were not far from levels generally found in European studies, and this study may be the first report on the presence of PBDEs and HBCD in SA breast milk. On a congener basis, the finding of comparably high BDE-183 levels suggests a specific PBDE usage, or contamination situation in SA. Apart from BFRs, the high DDT levels found in the breast milk from this area (median and maximum sumDDT levels of about 4 600 and over 20 000 ng/g of lipids, respectively; n = 28) have earlier been reported. In addition, other POPs (PCBs, HCB and HCHs) were found in SA breast milk, at relatively low levels. To conclude, measurable levels of PBDEs and HBCD, and a specific BDE congener pattern, were found in breast milk from the Limpopo province, SA. A number of other POPs, including DDTs in high levels, were also present.     

Distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorine pesticides and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in human umbilical cord serum, maternal serum and milk from Wielkopolska region, Poland

The levels of organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs): p,p'-DDT and its metabolites, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), chlordanes and their metabolites, and 18 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners were measured in maternal serum, umbilical cord serum and human milk collected from 22 mothers living in the Wielkopolska region, Poland. Additionally, 11 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners were measured in the human milk samples. p,p'-DDT and its major metabolite, p,p'-DDE, together with HCB, were found in all milk and serum samples. Median concentrations of p,p'-DDE in maternal serum, umbilical cord serum and milk were 343, 329 and 634ng/g lipid weight (lw). PCB congeners 138, 153 and 180 were the major congeners measured in all serum samples, while CB 170 was detected in 74% and 100% of umbilical cord and maternal serum, respectively. Except for CBs 74, 101 and 105, which had a detection frequency of 77%, 23% and 82%, respectively, all investigated PCB congeners were measured in all human milk samples. The median concentrations of sum PCBs in maternal serum, umbilical cord serum and milk were 79, 60 and 133 ng/g lw, respectively. A good correlation (Spearman R(S)>0.75, p<0.001) was found for major PCBs, p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE, between maternal and umbilical cord serum, while the correlation was weaker between milk and serum. The median of sum PBDEs in human milk was 2.0 ng/g lw (range 0.8 to 8.4), with BDE 47 being always the most abundant PBDE congener and, together with BDE 153, being present in all samples. In general, results found in the investigated group are at the low end of the concentration range measured in Europe.