Energy production and sustainable energy policies in Turkey

Turkey's demand for energy and electricity is increasing rapidly. Turkey is heavily dependent on expensive imported energy resources that place a big burden on the economy and air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern in the country. Turkey's energy production meets nearly 28% of its total primary energy consumption. As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional and global levels. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey's carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, biomass, geothermal, solar and wind. Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these renewable energy sources. Turkey has a great and ever-intensifying need for power and water supplies and they also have the greatest remaining hydro potential. Hydropower and especially small hydropower are emphasized as Turkey's renewable energy sources. Turkey's hydro electric potential can meet 33–46% of its electric energy demand in 2020 and this potential may easily and economically be developed. This paper presents a review of the potential and utilization of the renewable energy sources in Turkey.     

Renewable energy sources for clean and sustainable energy policies in Turkey

Energy is an essential factor to achieve sustainable development. So, countries striving to this end are seeking to reassess their energy systems with a view towards planning energy programmes and strategies in line with sustainable development goals and objectives. As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional and global levels. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. Turkey is an energy importing country with more than half of the energy requirement being supplied by imports, and air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern in the country. On the other hand, Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of the renewable energy sources. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. This paper provides an overview of global energy use and renewables for clean and sustainable energy policies in Turkey.     

Implementation of renewable energy in Scottish rural area: A social study

Nowadays, renewable energy is considered one of the valuable sources of energy in the energy sector. It is contributing major role in fulfilling the increasing level of global energy crisis. Although most of study of renewable energy is done through its technological development and a few are done in its acceptance level socially. In such consequences, this research considers the social acceptability of renewable energy in terms of economical, environmental and cultural perspectives. As a test bed, Scottish rural areas were considered for this social study, where the areas are regarded as lacking of continuous energy supply due to weak grid and socio-economic growth. This research investigates the intimate and sensitive nature of the social issues in rural Scotland that are important in the communities when decisions are made on renewable energy supply and demand. The social interactions are investigated by means of both interviewing the local residents and distributed questionnaires among them. The responses from the interviews and the questions are analyzed according to the predefined criterion of renewable energy such as willingness to accept, changes of life style, income and pay, and education and employment.     

Energy issues and renewables for sustainable development in Turkey

Energy is an essential factor to achieve sustainable development. So, countries striving to this end are seeking to reassess their energy systems with a view towards planning energy programs and strategies in line with sustainable development goals and objectives. As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional and global levels. Renewable energy technologies of wind, biofuels, solar thermal and photovoltaics are finally showing maturity and the ultimate promise of cost competitiveness. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey's carbon dioxide emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these renewable energy sources.     

Renewable energy carriers: Hydrogen or liquid air/nitrogen?

The world’s energy demand is met mainly by the fossil fuels today. The use of such fuels, however, causes serious environmental issues, including global warming, ozone layer depletion and acid rains. A sustainable solution to the issues is to replace the fossil fuels with renewable ones. Implementing such a solution, however, requires overcoming a number of technological barriers including low energy density, intermittent supply and mobility of the renewable energy sources. A potential approach to overcoming these barriers is to use an appropriate energy carrier, which can store, transport and distribute energy. The work to be reported in this paper aims to assess and compare a chemical energy carrier, hydrogen, with a physical energy carrier, liquid air/nitrogen, and discuss potential applications of the physical carrier. The ocean energy is used as an example of the renewable energy sources in the work. The assessment and comparison are carried out in terms of the overall efficiency, including production, storage/transportation and energy extraction. The environmental impact, waste heat recovery and safety issues are also considered. It is found that the physical energy carrier may be a better alternative to the chemical energy carrier under some circumstances, particularly when there are waste heat sources.     

Renewable energy sector in Belarus: A review

Belarus (BY) faces broad needs for energy security enhancement, energy diversification, and improvements in the state of the environment. Being the 13th largest importer of natural gas for energy BY has very limited energy resources of its own. Maximum reduction of energy imports is among the strategic tasks of raising the efficiency of Belarus' economy. The task fulfillment is possible through creation of a national infrastructure conductive to increasing the share of local and renewable sources of energy (RES) in heat and power energy production.BY's geographic location has several advantages for extensive use of most of the renewable energy (RE) and bioenergy sources. However, information on existing RE sector for the second-largest landlocked country in Europe is still hardly awailable for a wider audience of researchers working in the field of economic, environmental, political, planning and social aspects of energy supply in global proportions.The review on the renewable energy sector in BY so far has tried to give the background for RES, to describe their occurrence and conditions for using them, leading up to a discussion of the role of renewable energy in current and future energy systems, depending on a path of economic transition, social values, availability, and economic rules used to judge the viability of competing solutions. To ensure a simple, comprehensible and transparent presentation of the different available options of using RE for the provision of heat and power, the individual chapters describing the various renewable energy potentials and contribution options have been similarly structured whenever possible and sensible.     

Analysis of olive grove residual biomass potential for electric and thermal energy generation in Andalusia (Spain)

As fossil fuels are not only a limited resource, but also contribute to global warming, a transition towards a more sustainable energy supply is urgently needed. Therefore, today's environmental policies are largely devoted to fostering the development and implementation of renewable energy technologies. One important aspect of this transition is the increased use of biomass to generate renewable energy. Agricultural residues are produced in huge amounts worldwide, and most of this residue is composed of biomass that can be used for energy generation. Consequently, converting this residue into energy can increase the value of waste materials and reduce the environmental impact of waste disposal. This paper analyses the situation of biomass energy resources in Andalusia, an autonomous community in the south of Spain. More specifically, biomass is the renewable source which most contributes to Andalusian energy infrastructure. The residual biomass produced in the olive sector is the result of the large quantity of olive groves and olive oil manufacturers that generate byproducts with a potentially high energy content. The generation of agricultural and industrial residues from the olive sector produced in Andalusia is an important source of different types of residual biomass that are suitable for thermal and electric energy since they reduce the negative environmental effects of emissions from fossil fuels, such as the production of carbon dioxide.     

Modeling of hydrogen production with a stand-alone renewable hybrid power system

Hydrocarbon resources adequately meet today’s energy demands. Due to the environmental impacts, renewable energy sources are high in the agenda. As an energy carrier, hydrogen is considered one of the most promising fuels for its high energy density as compared to hydrocarbon fuels. Therefore, hydrogen has a significant and future use as a sustainable energy system. Conventional methods of hydrogen extraction require heat or electrical energy. The main source of hydrogen is water, but hydrogen extraction from water requires electrical energy. Electricity produced from renewable energy sources has a potential for hydrogen production systems. In this study, an electrolyzer using the electrical energy from the renewable energy system is used to describe a model, which is based on fundamental thermodynamics and empirical electrochemical relationships. In this study, hydrogen production capacity of a stand-alone renewable hybrid power system is evaluated. Results of the proposed model are calculated and compared with experimental data. The MATLAB/Simscape^® model is applied to a stand-alone photovoltaic-wind power system sited in Istanbul, Turkey.     

Current situation and future projection of marine renewable energy in China

The rapid development of China's economy cannot be separated from the massive consumption of fossil fuel. However, potential risks such as the extreme shortage of fossil fuel and the resulting environmental problems are becoming more and more prominent. As a substitution for fossil fuel, renewable energy is playing an increasingly important role in the energy structure adjustment. As a special type of renewable energy, marine renewable energy has been paid much attention by China's government and scientific researchers because of its properties such as cleanness, environmental protection and large reserves. Under the background of energy structure adjustment and electricity market reform in China, the marine renewable energy power market has a bright future. Through querying an amount of literature and information, this paper makes a strategic analysis based on the understanding of the resource endowment, the current industrial status, and policy environment. Then, the PEST‐SWOT strategy analysis model was adopted to analyze the internalities (strengths and weaknesses) and the externalities (opportunities and threats) of the factors affecting the development of marine renewable energy power industry. Then, some countermeasures from the four angles of strategic positioning, institutional arrangement, environmental education, and technical support are proposed to address the weaknesses and threats. Through the research, some conclusions and policy proposals are finally put forward to promote the sustainable development of the industry.     

The likely adverse environmental impacts of renewable energy sources

The global attention has always been focussed on the adverse environmental impacts of conventional energy sources. In contrast nonconventional energy sources, particularly the renewable ones, have enjoyed a ‘clean’ image vis a vis environmental impacts. The only major exception to this general trend has been large hydropower projects; experience has taught us that they can be disastrous for the environment. The belief now is that minihydel and microhydel projects are harmless alternatives. But are renewable energy sources really as benign as is widely believed? The present essay addresses this question in the background of Lovin's classical paradigm, which had postulated the hard (malignant) and soft (benign) energy concepts in the first place. It critically evaluates the environmental impacts of major renewable energy sources. It then comes up with the broad conclusion that renewable energy sources are not the panacea they are popularly perceived to be; indeed in some cases their adverse environmental impacts can be as strongly negative as the impacts of conventional energy sources. The paper also dwells on the steps we need to take so that we can utilize renewable energy sources without facing environmental backlashes of the type we got from hydropower projects.     

The first step towards a 100% renewable energy-system for Ireland

In 2007 Ireland supplied 96% of the total energy demand with fossil fuels (7% domestic and 89% imported) and 3% with renewable energy, even though there are enough renewable resources to supply all the energy required. As energy prices increase and the effects of global warming worsen, it is essential that Ireland begins to utilise its renewable resources more effectively. Therefore, this study presents the first step towards a 100% renewable energy-system for Ireland. The energy-system analysis tool used was EnergyPLAN, as it accounts for all sectors of the energy-system that need to be considered when integrating large penetrations of renewable energy: the electricity, heat, and transport sectors. Initially, a reference model of the existing Irish energy-system was constructed, and subsequently three different 100% renewable energy-systems were created with each focusing on a different resource: biomass, hydrogen, and electricity. These energy-systems were compared so that the benefits from each could be used to create an ‘optimum’ scenario called combination. Although the results illustrate a potential 100% renewable energy-system for Ireland, they have been obtained based on numerous assumptions. Therefore, these will need to be improved in the future before a serious roadmap can be defined for Ireland’s renewable energy transition.     

Renewable energy resources and technologies applicable to Ireland

The energy consumed in Ireland is primarily achieved by the combustion of fossil fuels. Ireland's only indigenous fossil fuel is peat; all other fossil fuels are imported. As fossil fuels continually become more expensive, their use as an energy source also has a negative impact on the environment. Ireland's energy consumption can be separated into three divisions: transportation, electricity generation and heat energy. Ireland however has a vast range of high quality renewable energy resources. Ireland has set a target that 33% of its electricity will be generated from renewable sources by 2020 [I. Government. Delivering a Sustainable Energy Future for Ireland; 2007.]. The use of biomass, wind and ocean energy technologies is expected to play a major part in meeting this target. The use of renewable energy technologies will assist sustainable development as well as being a solution to several energy related environmental problems. This paper presents the current state of renewable energy technologies and potential resources available in Ireland. Considering Ireland's present energy state, a future energy mix is proposed.     

Role of BCHP in energy and environmental sustainable development and its prospects in China

During last century, worldwide environment degradation gets more and more serious, and achieving environmental sustainable development is desirable. As many environmental issues are directly or indirectly energy related, energy sustainable development is one of the most important prerequisites for environmental sustainable development. Renewable energy technologies and energy conservation are two solutions for energy sustainable development. At present, energy-saving technology is a feasible and an effective way to achieve energy and environmental sustainable development, although renewable energy may be final solution to environmental issues. Building cooling, heating, and power (BCHP) technology, which usually use natural gas as primary energy, has high efficiency of energy utilization due to the utilization of distributed power generation and heat recovery, and thus is a promising energy conservation technology. BCHP can reduce pollutants emission and thus protects the environment besides improving IAQ and increasing reliability of building energy supply. As the largest developing country, China is just in the process of adjusting energy structure and improving energy efficiency. Because of its significant role in energy and environmental sustainable development, developing BCHP in China will help the country in optimizing energy proportion, increasing energy efficiency, and protecting environment. Therefore, BCHP technology will have broad prospects in China and it will promote the country's energy and environmental sustainable development.     

Variable chemical process and radiative nonlinear impact on magnetohydrodynamics Cross nanofluid: An approach toward controlling global warming

Solar energy is the basic source of renewable energy, and it is being used for controlling global pollution/warming. As the Cross nanofluid is very useful for cooling solar devices, in this paper analysis of the global warming effect is investigated by incorporating the nonlinear thermal radiation over the exponentially extendable surface because it plays a major role related to solar energy absorption of nanofluid. Furthermore, the mathematical modeling of Cross nanofluid involving magnetic effect and diffusion is discussed by using the fact of chemical reaction. Chemical reaction finds astonishing applications in pollution studies, chemical processing equipment, and polymer production. As a result of this study, it is noticed that more magnetized conducting fluid controls the motion of fluids for both cases of shear thinning and shear thickening. Brownian motion parameter Nb affects the rate of the random motion of nanoparticles. Increased Nb temperature also increases due to these random movements of nanoparticles. That is the reason why pollutant nanoparticles spread in air as a result of global warming increase.     

Recent advances in ammonia synthesis technologies: Toward future zero carbon emissions

As a carbon-free molecule, ammonia has gained great global interest in being considered a significant future candidate for the transition toward renewable energy. Numerous applications of ammonia as a fuel have been developed for energy generation, heavy transportation, and clean, distributed energy storage. There is a clear global target to achieve a sustainable economy and carbon neutrality. Therefore, most of the research's efforts are concentrated on generating cost-effective renewable energy on a large scale rather than fossil fuels. However, storage and transportation are still roadblocks for these technologies, for example, hydrogen technologies. Ammonia could be replaced as a viable fuel for a clean and sustainable future of global energy. More efforts from governments and scientists can lead to making ammonia a clean energy vector in most energy applications. In this review, ammonia synthesis was assessed, including conventional Haber–Bosch technology. Current hydrogen technologies as the key parameters for ammonia generation are also evaluated. The role of ammonia as a hydrogen-based fuel and generation roadmap are discussed for future utilization of energy mix. Further, ammonia generation processes are addressed in depth, including blue and green ammonia generation. A survey of ammonia synthesis catalytic materials was conducted and the role of catalyst materials in ammonia generation was compared, which showed that the Ru-based catalyst generated the maximum ammonia after 20 h of starting experiment. An end-use plan for using ammonia as a clean energy fuel in vehicles, marines, gas turbines as well as fuel cells, is briefly discussed to recognize the potential applications of ammonia use. The practical and future end-use vision of energy sources is proposed to achieve great benefits at low carbon emissions and costs. This review can provide prospective knowledge of large-scale aspects and environmental considerations of ammonia. Herein, we conclude that ammonia will become the “clean energy carrier link” that will achieve the global energy and economy sustainability targets.     

A review on hydrogen production and utilization: Challenges and opportunities

Environment-friendly, safe and reliable energy supplies are indispensable to society for sustainable development and high life quality where even though social, environmental, political and economic challenges may play a vital role in their provision. Our continuously growing energy demand is driven by extensive growth in economic development and population and places an ever-increasing burden on fossil fuel utilization that represent a substantial percentage of this increasing energy demand but also creates challenges associated with increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and resource depletion. Such challenges make the global transition obligatory from conventional to renewable energy sources. Hydrogen is emerging as a new energy vector outside its typical role and receiving more recognition globally as a potential fuel pathway, as it offers advantages in use cases and unlike synthetic carbon-based fuels can be truly carbon neutral or even negative on a life cycle basis. This review paper provides critical analysis of the state-of-the-art in blue and green hydrogen production methods using conventional and renewable energy sources, utilization of hydrogen, storage, transportation, distribution and key challenges and opportunities in the commercial deployment of such systems. Some of the key promising renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen, such as solar and wind, are intermittent; hydrogen appears to be the best candidate to be employed for multiple purposes blending the roles of fuel energy carrier and energy storage modality. Furthermore, this study offers a comparative assessment of different non-renewable and renewable hydrogen production systems based on system design, cost, global warming potential (GWP), infrastructure and efficiency. Finally the key challenges and opportunities associated with hydrogen production, storage, transportation and distribution and commercial-scale deployment are addressed.     

Renewable energy technologies for the Indian power sector: mitigation potential and operational strategies

The future economic development trajectory for India is likely to result in rapid and accelerated growth in energy demand, with attendant shortages and problems. Due to the predominance of fossil fuels in the generation mix, there are large negative environmental externalities caused by electricity generation. The power sector alone has a 40 percent contribution to the total carbon emissions. In this context, it is imperative to develop and promote alternative energy sources that can lead to sustainability of the energy–environment system. There are opportunities for renewable energy technologies under the new climate change regime as they meet the two basic conditions to be eligible for assistance under UNFCCC mechanisms: they contribute to global sustainability through GHG mitigation; and, they conform to national priorities by leading to the development of local capacities and infrastructure. This increases the importance of electricity generation from renewables. Considerable experience and capabilities exist in the country on renewable electricity technologies. But a number of techno–economic, market-related, and institutional barriers impede technology development and penetration. Although at present the contribution of renewable electricity is small, the capabilities promise the flexibility for responding to emerging economic, socio–environmental and sustainable development needs. This paper discusses the renewable and carbon market linkages and assesses mitigation potential of power sector renewable energy technologies under global environmental intervention scenarios for GHG emissions reduction. An overall energy system framework is used for assessing the future role of renewable energy in the power sector under baseline and different mitigation scenarios over a time frame of 35 years, between 2000 to 2035. The methodology uses an integrated bottom-up modelling framework. Looking into past performance trends and likely future developments, analysis results are compared with officially set targets for renewable energy. The paper also assesses the CDM investment potential for power sector renewables. It outlines specific policy interventions for overcoming the barriers and enhancing deployment of renewables for the future.     

Making a renewable energy future a reality: Case studies in successful renewable energy development

The environmental sustainability of the current global energy system is under serious question. A major transition away from fossil fuels to one based on energy efficiency and renewable energy is required.The development of a wide range of renewable energy technologies is continuing at an impressive rate. Cost reductions have been real and impressive. With few exceptions however, the relative contribution of renewable energy to the total energy mix remains quite small in most countries. There are still a wide range of barriers preventing renewables from making a much more significant contribution.The paper utilises a range of case studies from around the world which demonstrate some of the lessons of successful renewable energy implementation, and suggest a set of coordinated policies which would lead to a growing role for renewable energy in the commercial energy market.     

Integrated energy in Germany–A critical look at the development and state of integrated energies in Germany

In the face of global warming and a scarcity of resources, future energy systems are urged to undergo a major and radical transformation. The recognition of the need to embrace renewable energy technologies and to move toward decarbonization has led to significant changes in the German energy generation, consumption and infrastructure. Ambitious German national plans to decrease carbon dioxide emissions on one side, and the unpredictable and volatile nature of renewable energy sources on the other side have elevated the importance of integrated energies in recent years. The deployment of integrated technologies as a solution to interlink various infrastructures creates opportunities for increasing the reliability of energy systems, minimizing environmental impacts and maximizing the share of renewable resources. This paper discusses the role of integrated energy systems in supporting of sustainable solutions for future energy transitions. Moreover, the reinforcement of this movement with the help of different technologies will be discussed and the development of integrated energy systems in Germany will be reviewed.     

Renewable energy resources,policies and gaps in BRICS countries and the global impact

This paper presents comparative yet extensive analysis of existing non-conventional renewable resources, energy policies and gaps in BRICS countries. An intelligent transformation to green economy to maintain natural resources is noted. Brazil has stable energy policies and is the leading producer of biofuels following hydropower until 2014 but supported wind and solar power development by tendering specific tariffs for energy generation from solar and wind. Russia needs improvement in its legal and regulatory framework with more incentives in energy policies. China is improving upon wind and hydropower but it needs strong policy measures to put cap on increased CO₂ emissions. India needs revision in energy policy and requires extra incentives and consumer specific energy policies for research-infrastructure and energy generation technologies. South Africa requires lessons to increase renewable energy and reduce coal mining. Moreover, BRICS countries need to redefine their energy policies based upon their existing geographical, economical, societal and environmental conditions which will help in shaping global energy policies and more financial stability. This paper recognizes the potential of BRICS to reshape the global system paralleled with minimizing CO₂ emissions. The concerted role of BRICS needs to be recognized as the leading contributor of global renewable capacity where the developed world is geared and busy to address the environmental issues.