Microbiological contamination of pig and cattle carcasses in different small-scale Swiss abattoirs

A total of 750 pig carcasses and 535 cattle carcasses from 17 small-scale abattoirs were sampled by excision at four sites (pig: neck, belly, back, ham; cattle: neck, brisket, flank, rump). Samples were examined for total viable counts (TVC) and Enterobacteriaceae. Mean TVCs ranged from 2.4 to 4.2 log(10)CFUcm(-2) on pig carcasses and from 2.7 to 3.8 log(10)CFUcm(-2) on cattle carcasses. With regard to EU Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005, TVCs were mainly considered satisfactory (pig: 81.3%; cattle: 71.4%). Amongst sites, the back (pigs) and neck (cattle) tended to yield higher TVCs. Enterobacteriaceae were detected in low counts on 23.9% of pig carcasses and 21.7% of cattle carcasses. Amongst abattoirs, Enterobacteriaceae prevalence on pig and cattle carcasses ranged from 2.0% to 56.0% and from 0.0% to 55.0%, respectively. Consequently, criteria of the EU Regulation proved to be a suitable tool for the appraisal of microbiological results (TVCs) from pig and cattle carcasses from small-scale abattoirs. Because the occurrence of Enterobacteriaceae on carcasses was too infrequent to ensure log normality, frequencies should be compared for these organisms.     

Microbiological contamination of pig carcasses at different stages of slaughter in two European Union-approved abattoirs

At sequential steps of slaughter (scalding, dehairing, singeing, polishing, trimming, washing, and chilling), 200 pig carcasses from two abattoirs were examined for total viable bacteria count (TVC) and the presence of Enterobacteriaceae and coagulase-positive Staphylococcus (CPS) by the wet-dry double-swab technique at the neck, belly, back, and ham. Before scalding, mean TVCs ranged from 5.0 to 6.0 log CFU cm(-2), and Enterobacteriaceae and CPS were detected on all carcasses. At abattoir A, mean TVCs and the percentage of Enterobacteriaceae-positive carcasses were reduced (P < 0.05) after scalding (1.9 log CFU cm(-2) and 12%, respectively), singeing (1.9 log CFU cm(-2) and 66%, respectively), and blast chilling (2.3 log CFU cm(-2) and 17%, respectively) and increased (P < 0.05) after dehairing (3.4 log CFU cm(-2) and 100%, respectively) and polishing (2.9 log CFU cm(-2)). The proportion of CPS-positive samples decreased to < or = 10% after scalding and remained at this level. At abattoir B, mean TVCs and the percentages of Enterobacteriaceae- and CPS-positive carcasses were reduced (P < 0.05) after scalding (2.4 log CFU cm(-2) and 29 and 20%, respectively), polishing (3.7 log CFU cm(-2)), and chilling (2.6 log CFU cm(-2) and 55 and 77%, respectively) and increased (P < 0.05) after the combined dehairing-singeing (4.7 log CFU cm(-2) and 97 and 100%, respectively). Among sites, the neck tended to yield higher levels of contamination from trimming to chilling at both abattoirs (P < 0.05). Consequently, scalding, singeing, and chilling may be integrated in a hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system for pig slaughter. As indicated by the higher levels of contamination on carcasses after dehairing-singeing and the following stages at abattoir B, each abattoir should develop its own baseline data and should customize HACCP systems to match process- and site-specific circumstances.     

A comparative study of sampling techniques for monitoring carcass contamination

Four bacteriological sampling techniques i.e. the excision, double swab, agar contract and modified agar contact techniques were compared by sampling pig carcasses before and after chilling. As well as assessing the advantages and disadvantages of the techniques particular attention was paid to variation due to the effects of chilling. The agar contact technique cannot be used for determining the contamination of carcasses because too many plates became overcrowded with micro-organisms. Results obtained by the double swab and modified agar technique gave standard deviations which were significantly higher than those of the excision technique. This may indicate a superior repeatability of the excision technique. Statistical analysis of the results showed that chilling influenced the differences between sampling techniques. The excision technique is to be regarded as the most suitable in view of its high accuracy and precision. When the technique is used properly, carcass damage is only small or negligible.     

Assessment of carcass contamination with E. coli O157 before and after washing with water at abattoirs in Nigeria

The study was carried out to assess the level of beef carcass contamination with Escherichia coli including O157 strains before and after washing with water. Samples of water used for washing carcasses were collected and thirty beef carcasses were swabbed within a period of one month in each of three abattoirs located in North-Western states of Nigeria. E. coli were enumerated as indicator organisms. Using conventional biochemical tests, the isolation rate of E. coli in the 120 swab samples collected in each abattoir from external and internal surfaces of the carcasses was 58.3% at Kano abattoir, 70.8% at Sokoto abattoir, while 76.7% was recorded at Zango abattoir. E. coli counts from external and internal surfaces of the carcasses were enumerated as mean log and ranged between 4.3 Log(10) and 4.6 Log(10) cfu/cm(2) before washing, while the values were 4.6 Log(10) and 4.9 Log(10) cfu/cm(2) after washing. Data analysis revealed that the increase in E. coli counts after washing carcasses with water was statistically significant (P<0.05) in all the abattoirs. However, there was no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) between the 3 abattoirs in mean log of E. coli counts from external surfaces of carcass after washing. E. coli O157 was identified from both the water and surfaces of carcasses using Latex agglutination kit. A prevalence of 2.8% of E. coli O157 was detected in 360 swab samples from 90 beef carcasses examined. E. coli counts from water used in washing carcasses were between 22 and 120 cfu/100 ml. Of the 72 water samples, 3(4.2%) were positive for E. coli O157. In conclusion, there was increased contamination of carcasses during processing and water used in washing carcasses might have contributed to carcass contamination in all the abattoirs studied due to use of non-potable water.     

Age and nutrition influence the concentrations of three branched chain fatty acids in sheep fat from Australian abattoirs

The characteristic mutton odour, associated with the cooked meat of older sheep, can be problematic for some consumers who find the odour disagreeable. Branch chain fatty acids (BCFAs) are considered to be the main determinants of mutton odour. In this study, the aim was to identify the factors influencing the BCFA content of animals at abattoirs in Australia. Samples of subcutaneous fat from over the chump (gluteus medius) were collected from 533 sheep carcasses at abattoirs in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia. The carcasses were from sheep differing in age, gender, breed and nutrition. The concentrations of three branched chain fatty acids (BCFAs); namely, 4-methyloctanoic (MOA), 4-ethyloctanoic (EOA) and 4-methylnonanoic acids (MNA), were determined. Statistical modelling showed that, with pre-slaughter nutrition in the model as a random term, BCFA concentrations could be used for discriminating the age of sheep. Fat samples from lamb carcasses had lower MOA and EOA concentrations and a higher concentration of MNA in comparison to hogget and mutton (P < 0.05). When nutrition was excluded as a random effect from the statistical model, the MOA and MNA concentrations did not differentiate between lamb, hogget and mutton whereas, for EOA, lamb had a lower concentration than mutton (P < 0.05) with hogget intermediate. An interaction existed between age and gender (P < 0.05) where female lambs had lower EOA concentrations relative to the mutton but not for castrates.     

Microbiological contamination of fresh-cut produce in Korea

Food Science and Biotechnology - This study evaluated the microbiological contamination of fresh-cut produce in Korea. A total of 108 fresh-cut vegetables and fruits were surveyed for the aerobic...     

Airborne bacteria and carcass contamination in slaughterhouses.

Microbiological contamination of air and carcasses was studied in four slaughterhouses by using impactor samples taken at the back-splitting and weighing areas and by sampling carcasses with the swabbing method. Air flow was determined by an air-flow detector, and the movement of workers was observed. The air contamination level in the back-splitting areas (2.25 log CFU/100 liters of air) was generally higher than that in the weighing areas (2.03 log CFU/100 liters of air). Associations between the microbiological contamination of air and carcasses with the movements of workers were found. Layout of the slaughtering line was shown to be important in decreasing airborne contamination. Separation of the clean and unclean parts of the line as well as separation of the weighing area from the other clean parts of the line decreased the contamination level. It appears that airborne bacteria have an important role in carcass contamination.     

Microbiological quality of Australian sheep meat

Microbiological quality of sheep carcasses and boneless sheep meat produced in Australia was surveyed during the period June to November 1998. Sponge samples were collected from 917 carcasses, and meat samples were drilled from 467 cartons of frozen boneless meat. Carcass and boneless meat samples were respectively collected from 7 and 10 establishments that concentrated on export, and from 36 and 5 establishments supplying the Australian domestic market of which 31 were very small plants slaughtering cattle and sheep but no more than 1,200 sheep equivalents per week. The mean log total viable counts were 3.55/cm2 and 3.30/g for carcasses and boneless meat, respectively. Escherichia coli was detected on 29.2% of carcasses and 24.5% of boneless meat samples and coagulase-positive staphylococci on 24.1% of carcasses, and 38.6% of boneless meat samples. Salmonella was detected on 0.1% of carcasses and 1.3% of boneless meat samples. E. coli O157:H7 was recovered from 0.7% of carcasses and 1.3% of boneless sheep meat. There were statistically significant differences between establishment types for some microbiological criteria, although there were no significant differences in prevalence of Salmonella or E. coli O157:H7 between establishment types. While there were differences in sampling and microbiological techniques between this study and another conducted in 1993 to 1994 that require detailed consideration, there were small but significant improvements in several microbiological criteria for boneless meat. While data that would allow for comparison of carcass data were not gathered, it is unlikely that improvements in the microbiological quality of boneless sheep meat could accrue without improvements to carcasses.     

Microbiological contamination of reindeer carcasses in different reindeer slaughterhouses

The microbiological contamination of reindeer carcasses was studied in 10 Finnish reindeer slaughterhouses. Six of the slaughterhouses were field slaughterhouses and four were plant slaughterhouses. In each slaughterhouse 11 to 30 carcasses were sampled, with abdomen, brisket, and foreleg as sampling sites. Sampling was performed immediately after slaughter, using a nondestructive swabbing method. The overall mean bacterial count of carcasses was 3.12+/-0.61 log CFU/cm2. The mean bacterial value of the carcasses and the bacterial counts of abdomen and brisket were significantly lower in field slaughterhouses than in plant slaughterhouses, suggesting that the controlled conditions of plant slaughterhouses do not necessarily improve the microbiological quality of reindeer carcasses. However, the highest bacterial contamination was found in a field slaughterhouse where the slaughter was performed after rain when the ground was without snow. Carcass contamination seemed to be increased by the use of an evisceration apron, the unnecessary washing of forelegs, and the unnecessary handling of carcasses with hands and arms.     

Microbiological status of Australian sheep meat.

Two studies were undertaken to determine the microbiological status of sheep carcass meat and frozen, bulk-packed sheep meat produced in Australia. Samples were collected from 470 sheep carcasses and 415 cartons of frozen sheep trimmings over a period of approximately 12 months. Samples were collected from plants processing sheep carcasses for domestic or export markets. On carcasses, where bacterial counts were obtained, the mean of the log10 aerobic plate count (APC) was 3.92/cm2, the geometric mean of the most probable number (MPN) per square centimeter of Escherichia coli (biotype I) was 23, and the geometric mean of the coliform count was 38 MPN per cm2. A high percentage (75%) of samples was positive for E. coli (biotype I), 81% were positive for coliforms, 5.74% were positive for Salmonella spp., and 1.29% were positive for Campylobacter. Bacterial counts were higher on carcasses chilled over a weekend than on carcasses chilled for 24 h. The total number of bacteria on carcasses processed for domestic markets was similar to that on carcasses processed for export markets. E. coli O157 was not isolated from any of the 465 samples tested. Of the frozen export samples that tested positive, the mean of the log10 APC was 3.47/g, the geometric mean of the E. coli (biotype I) count was 9 MPN per g, and the geometric mean of the coliform count was 19 MPN per g. Of the frozen export samples tested, 48% were positive for E. coli (biotype I), 58% were positive for coliforms, and 6.5% were positive for Salmonella spp. E. coli O157 was recovered from 1 of 343 frozen sheep meat samples tested (0.29%). Bacterial counts were higher on samples of domestic product than on samples of export product. Results from both surveys are compared with data from similar studies conducted in other countries.     

Incidence of coagulase positive Staphylococcus on beef carcasses in three Australian abattoirs.

The contamination of beef carcasses with coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS) was studied at three beef abattoirs (A, B and C). The incidence and the number of CPS were determined on cattle hides immediately after slaughter and on three carcass sites (brisket, flank and round) at different points during processing along the slaughter line. The incidence of CPS on cattle hides ranged from 20 to 68.6%. At abattoir A, 6.5% of the carcasses sampled before evisceration were contaminated with CPS, compared to 40% of the carcasses after evisceration. The incidence on carcasses changed little during further processing; however, after chilling for 72 h, the incidence increased to 83%. After evisceration, the brisket and flank areas were more often contaminated than the round. A similar pattern of contamination was observed at abattoir B. At abattoir C, 26.7% of the samples collected before evisceration were contaminated and this fell to 16.7% after evisceration. After chilling for 72 h, the incidence of carcass contamination with CPS increased to 46.7%. The average number of CPS on contaminated carcasses prior to and after overnight chilling was less than 50 colony-forming units (cfu)/cm2 and, after weekend chilling, increased to 64 and 112 cfu/cm2 in abattoirs A and B, respectively. Of the isolates tested, 71.4% produced staphylococcal enterotoxin and 21% could not be classified phenotypically. The hands of workers and environmental sites associated with the evisceration process were examined for CPS at abattoir A. Hands were heavily contaminated and were the likely source of CPS contamination at this abattoir.     

Microbiological contamination of raw beef trimmings and ground beef

To survey the microbiological quality of beef trimmings and final-ground beef, samples were collected from eight commercial grinding facilities, including trimmings from fed-cattle, culled-beef cows, culled-dairy cows, imported-beef trimmings and finished-ground products. Trim samples (core and purge) and ground product samples (n=586) were evaluated for aerobic plate (APC), total coliform (TCC), Escherichia coli (ECC) and Staphylococcus aureus counts and the presence of Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes. As fat content in the trimmings increased, APC also increased. Trimmings from fed-cattle had higher (P<0.05) APC and TCC than trimmings from culled-beef cows, culled-dairy cows and imported trimmings. Purge samples produced higher (P<0.05) APC, TCC and ECC than core samples, but there were no difference (P>0.05) across fat percentages in APC, TCC, ECC or S. aureus counts. Final-ground beef samples had a 13.6 and 1.5 % incidence of L. monocytogenes and Salmonella spp., respectively. The results of this study indicate specific areas of potential that ground beef processors could capitalize upon to further improve the microbiological quality of their finished product. Ground beef processors should focus their efforts on reducing the microbial counts on incoming raw materials, especially those containing large proportions of subcutaneous fat, and processors should no longer incorporate the purge component of raw materials into ground beef. From this study, it is also apparent that ground beef processors should implement sanitation and manufacturing procedures that address L. monocytogenes contamination.     

Interrelationships amongst carcass and meat quality characteristics of sheep

The relationships between various carcass and meat quality characteristics of sheep were studied. Relationships were determined by regression, using data obtained from sheep belonging to a wide range of breeds, sex types and slaughter weight (32-62 kg). The chilling rate of the M. longissimus dorsi (LD) post-mortem was negatively correlated with carcass weight (r=-0.42, P<0.01), back fat thickness (r=-0.54, P<0.001) and the cooking loss of the M. infraspinatus (IS) muscle (r=-0.44, P<0.001). Correlation between chilling rate and shear force of the IS muscle was not significant, which was also the case between chilling rate and the cooking loss and shear force of the LD and M. triceps brachii muscles. A positive relationship was observed between total collagen and cooking loss (r=0.34, P<0.05) and between heat-insoluble collagen and cooking loss of the LD muscle (r=0.37, P<0.01). Generally collagen content was positively correlated with lean content and negatively with fat content. Carcass weight was significantly (P<0.001) correlated with intramuscular fat (r=0.61), moisture (r=-0.76), cooking loss (r=-0.49), shear force (r=-0.41) and hue angle (r=-0.41). Shear force was positively associated with cooking loss (r=0.42, P<0.001), but negatively with intramuscular fat content (r=-0.55, P<0.001). Cooking loss was positively correlated with moisture content (r=0.55, P<0.001).     

Effect of intestinal content contamination on broiler carcass Campylobacter counts

Intestinal contents may contaminate broiler carcasses during processing. The objective of this study was to determine what effect various levels of intestinal contents had on the numbers of Campylobacter detected in broiler carcass rinse samples. Eviscerated broiler carcasses were collected from the shackle line in a commercial processing plant immediately after passing through an inside/outside washer. Broiler carcasses were cut longitudinally into contralateral halves using a sanitized saw. Cecal contents from the same flock were collected, pooled, homogenized, and used to contaminate carcass halves. Paired carcass halves were divided into groups of eight each, and then cecal contents (2, 5, 10, 50, or 100 mg) were placed onto one randomly selected half of each carcass, while the corresponding half of the same broiler carcass received no cecal contents. Campylobacter counts from carcass halves with cecal contamination were compared to the uncontaminated halves of the same carcasses using a paired t test. Carcass halves with 5 mg or more of surface cecal contamination had significantly higher numbers of Campylobacter than those without (P < 0.01). Carcass halves contaminated with only 5 mg of cecal contents had an average of 3.3 log CFU Campylobacter per ml of rinse, while corresponding uncontaminated carcass halves had 2.6 log CFU Campylobacter per ml of rinse. These data indicate that even small (5 mg) amounts of cecal contents can cause a significant increase in the numbers of Campylobacter on eviscerated broiler carcasses. Therefore, it is important to keep such contamination to a minimum during processing.     

Effect of cardiac arrest on susceptibility to carcass bruising in sheep

The effect of inducing a cardiac arrest at electrical stunning on the susceptibility of the carcass to bruising was evaluated in thiopentone-anaesthetised sheep. Bruising was induced with a percussion pistol and measured in terms of meat appearance and extractable haem pigment. Cardiac arrest caused a prompt and marked reduction in susceptibility to bruising, and it is concluded that stunning techniques which cause simultaneous heart failure could help to reduce the incidence of carcass bruising. Exsanguination of sheep which had a normal cardiac rhythm prevented the induction of bruising once 50% of the total blood loss had occurred.     

Microbiological sampling of poultry carcass portions by excision, rinsing, or swabbing

Groups of 25 skin-on thighs or skin-on, skinned, or tumbled breast portions of broiler chicken carcasses were sampled by excision of skin or muscle tissue, rinsing, or swabbing. Counts of total aerobic bacteria, coliforms, and Escherichia coli were recorded for each sample. For all types of carcass portions, the mean log counts and the total log counts obtained for each group of bacteria by excision or rinsing mostly differed by <0.5 log unit. However, the counts obtained by swabbing were generally >0.5 log unit lower than the smaller of the values obtained by the other two sampling methods.     

Antibiotic resistance of Salmonella isolated from hog, beef, and chicken carcass samples from provincially inspected abattoirs in Ontario

The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella organisms, especially Salmonella Typhimurium DT104, has been reported in many countries, including the United States and Canada. The purposes of this study were to determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella isolated from hog, beef, and chicken carcasses from provincially inspected abattoirs in Ontario and to determine the agreement between the agar dilution method and the microbroth dilution method for measurement of antimicrobial resistance of the isolates. Antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolates from hogs (n = 71), beef (n = 24), and chicken (n = 295) to amikacin, ampicillin, cephalothin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole, and tetracycline was determined using the two methods. None of the 390 isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin at levels of 0.125 microg/ml. All chicken and hog isolates were sensitive to amikacin, whereas all beef isolates were sensitive to both amikacin and gentamicin. Multiple antimicrobial resistance (resistance to more than one antimicrobial) was found in 29% of bovine isolates and 42% of porcine isolates using both methods for testing and in 42% by the agar dilution and 33% by the microbroth dilution methods in the chicken isolates. Overall, there was good agreement between the two test methods for resistance to most of the antimicrobials, with disagreement found in the results in 1.3% of the isolates for ampicillin and sulfamethoxazole, 8.2% for streptomycin, 5.6% for cephalothin, and 1.0% of the isolates for tetracycline. The lack of agreement between the two test methods was found mostly among the chicken isolates.     

Factors associated with carcass contamination by Campylobacter at slaughterhouse in cecal-carrier broilers

A study was conducted in 2009 to identify risk factors of Campylobacter spp. transmission from the digestive tract to the carcasses of standard broilers (slaughter age: 37 day, carcass weight: 1.3 kg on average). Counts of Campylobacter were performed on pools of 10 ceca and 10 neck-skins from 108 Campylobacter ceca-positive batches in three slaughterhouses. Technical and health data also was collected on the broilers: age, size, carcass weight (mean and standard deviation), condemnation rate, mortality rate and nature of treatment during the rearing period.Cecal counts varied from 4.8 to 10.2 log₁₀ cfu/g. In seventeen batches (15.7%), the skin count was below the detection limit. In the 91 batches with positive neck-skin test results, the counts varied from 2.0 to 5.2 log₁₀ cfu/g. Standard deviation of carcass weight, condemnation rate, slaughter rate and cecal count were significantly lower and growth rate higher in the 17 batches where neck-skin results were not detected positive. Multivariate analysis showed that batches with higher standard deviation of carcass weight were 5 to 9 fold more at risk of having detectable carcass contamination. Among the 91 positive neck-skin batches, only slaughter rate and cecal counts were found to have a significant but limited effect on the level of neck-skin contamination. As far as body weight homogeneity may be affected by disease, better health control can contribute to a reduction of the contamination of the broiler carcasses in Campylobacter carrier batches.     

Using indicator bacteria and Salmonella test results from three large-scale beef abattoirs over an 18-month period to evaluate intervention system efficacy and plan carcass testing for Salmonella

To develop a process for predicting the likelihood of Salmonella contamination on beef carcasses, we evaluated the influence of several possible causative factors (i.e., year, abattoir, day of week, month, and intervention system components) on the risk of Salmonella and indicator organism contamination. Hide and carcass sponge samples were collected in 2005 to 2006 in six steps at three abattoirs in the East (A), Midwest (B), and Southwest (C) United States. Each abattoir used the same intervention system. Samples were analyzed for aerobic plate counts (APCs; n = 18,990) and Enterobacteriaceae counts (EBCs; n = 18,989) and the presence or absence of Salmonella (n = 5,355). Our results demonstrated that many factors play a significant role in the level of microbial contamination of beef carcasses. Overall, Salmonella prevalence and EBC levels were significantly higher in 2006 than in 2005. APCs and EBCs were highest in abattoirs A (3.57 log CFU/100 cm2) and B (1.31 log CFU/100 cm2). The odds of detecting a positive Salmonella isolate were greatest in abattoir C and lowest in abattoir A. Across the three abattoirs, the overall intervention process effectively reduced microbiological contamination. Salmonella prevalence fell from 45% (preevisceration) to 0.47% (postchilled-lactic acid), and there were APC and EBC reductions of 5.43 and 5.28 log CFU/100 cm2, respectively, from hide-on to postchilled-lactic acid samples. At each abattoir, composites of three individual EBC-negative carcass samples yielded Salmonella-negative results 97 to 99% of the time. These results suggest the possibility of using indicator test results to accurately predict the absence of Salmonella in a beef carcass sample.     

A survey of pre-slaughter conditions, halothane gene frequency, and carcass and meat quality in five Spanish pig commercial abattoirs

A total of 116 deliveries, comprising 15,695 commercial pigs delivered to five abattoirs, were surveyed during winter and summer. Information about on-farm fasting, transport duration and stocking density, and lairage time was collected. Cortisol, creatine phospho-kinase (CPK), and lactate, and DNA for halothane genotype were analysed in a subsample of pigs at exsanguination in every journey. Electrical conductivity (PQM) in semimembranosus muscle (SM) and carcass characteristics (Fat-o-Meater and skin damage) were measured in each carcass. pHu of SM was analysed in the laboratory in a subsample in every journey. Carcasses were identified as PSE or DFD based on PQM and pHu, respectively. The n gene frequency ranged among abattoirs from 54 to 8%. Mean lean content was 58.9% for nn, 57.3% for Nn, and 55.8% for NN pigs, though a difference of 2.5% lean was observed between two abattoirs with the same n gene frequency. A straight relationship of the incidence of serious PSE carcasses and n gene frequency was found. The overall incidence of serious PSE and DFD carcasses was 6.5 and 12.5%, respectively. A higher incidence of PSE carcasses was found in summer; in deliveries with <12 h on-farm fasting; with transport stocking densities >0.40 m(2)/100 kg pig; and in transports of <2 h duration. A higher incidence of DFD carcasses was found in winter; with transport stocking densities <0.40 m(2)/100 kg pig; transports of >2 h duration; and lairage times >9 h. Cortisol level in blood increased in winter and decreased after 12-18 h fasting time. A rise in the lactate concentration was observed in pigs transported in high stocking density (<0.40 m(2)/100 kg pig) and for a longer time (>2 h). All blood stress indices increase as increasing lairage time. Carcasses with more skin damage had higher levels of cortisol, CPK and lactate, and higher incidence of DFD meat, compared with non and low skin damage carcasses.