Pre-stack basis pursuit seismic inversion for brittleness of shale

Brittleness of rock plays a significant role in exploration and development of shale gas reservoirs. Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio are the key parameters for evaluating the rock brittleness in shale gas exploration because their combination relationship can quantitatively characterize the rock brittleness. The highvalue anomaly of Young’s modulus and the low-value anomaly of Poisson’s ratio represent high brittleness of shale. The technique of pre-stack amplitude variation with angle inversion allows geoscientists to estimate Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio from seismic data. A model constrained basis pursuit inversion method is proposed for stably estimating Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. Test results of synthetic gather data show that Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio can be estimated reasonably. With the novel method, the inverted Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of real field data focus the layer boundaries better, which is helpful for us to evaluate the brittleness of shale gas reservoirs. The results of brittleness evaluation show a good agreement with the results of well interpretation.     

Optimization of shale gas reservoir evaluation and assessment of shale gas resources in the Oriente Basin in Ecuador

The petroleum geological features of hydrocarbon source rocks in the Oriente Basin in Ecuador are studied in detail to determine the potential of shale gas resources in the basin. The favorable shale gas layer in the vertical direction is optimized by combining logging identification and comprehensive geological analysis. The thickness in this layer is obtained by logging interpretation in the basin. The favorable shale gas accumulation area is selected by referring to thickness and depth data. Furthermore, the shale gas resource amount of the layer in the favorable area is calculated using the analogy method. Results show that among the five potential hydrocarbon source rocks, the lower Napo Formation is the most likely shale gas layer. The west and northwest zones, which are in the deep-sea slope and shelf sedimentary environments, respectively, are the favorable areas for shale gas accumulation. The favorable sedimentary environment formed thick black shale that is rich in organic matter. The black shale generated hydrocarbon, which migrated laterally to the eastern shallow water shelf to form numerous oil fields. The result of the shale gas resource in the two favorable areas,as calculated by the analogy method, is 55,500×10~8 m~3. This finding shows the high exploration and development potential of shale gas in the basin.     

Investigation of shale gas microflow with the Lattice Boltzmann method

In contrast to conventional gas-bearing rocks,gas shale has extremely low permeability due to its nanoscale pore networks. Organic matter which is dispersed in the shale matrix makes gas flow characteristics more complex. The traditional Darcy’s law is unable to estimate matrix permeability due to the particular flow mechanisms of shale gas. Transport mechanisms and influence factors are studied to describe gas transport in extremely tight shale. Then Lattice Boltzmann simulation is used to establish a way to estimate the matrix permeability numerically. The results show that net desorption, diffusion, and slip flow are very sensitive to the pore scale. Pore pressure also plays an important role in mass fluxes of gas.Temperature variations only cause small changes in mass fluxes. The Lattice Boltzmann method can be used to study the flow field in the micropore spaces and then provides numerical solutions even in complex pore structure models.Understanding the transport characteristics and establishing a way to estimate potential gas flow is very important to guide shale gas reserve estimation and recovery schemes.     

Formation and distribution characteristics of Proterozoic–Lower Paleozoic marine giant oil and gas fields worldwide

There are rich oil and gas resources in marine carbonate strata worldwide.Although most of the oil and gas reserves discovered so far are mainly distributed in Mesozoic,Cenozoic,and upper Paleozoic strata,oil and gas exploration in the Proterozoic–Lower Paleozoic(PLP)strata—the oldest marine strata—has been very limited.To more clearly understand the oil and gas formation conditions and distributions in the PLP marine carbonate strata,we analyzed and characterized the petroleum geological conditions,oil and gas reservoir types,and their distributions in thirteen giant oil and gas fields worldwide.This study reveals the main factors controlling their formation and distribution.Our analyses show that the source rocks for these giant oil and gas fields are mainly shale with a great abundance of type I–II organic matter and a high thermal evolution extent.The reservoirs are mainly gas reservoirs,and the reservoir rocks are dominated by dolomite.The reservoir types are mainly karst and reef–shoal bodies with well-developed dissolved pores and cavities,intercrystalline pores,and fractures.These reservoirs arehighly heterogeneous.The burial depth of the reservoirs is highly variable and somewhat negatively correlated to the porosity.The cap rocks are mainly thick evaporites and shales,with the thickness of the cap rocks positively correlated to the oil and gas reserves.The development of high-quality evaporite cap rock is highly favorable for oil and gas preservation.We identified four hydrocarbon generation models,and that the major source rocks have undergone a long period of burial and thermal evolution and are characterized by early and long periods of hydrocarbon generation.These giant oil and gas fields have diverse types of reservoirs and are mainly distributed in paleo-uplifts,slope zones,and platform margin reef-shoal bodies.The main factors that control their formation and distribution were identified,enabling the prediction of new favorable areas for oil and gas exploration.     

Shale Gas Play Screening and Evaluation Criteria

The uniqueness of shale gas plays is contrasted with conventional oil and gas exploration. Based on our ten year history in shale gas exploration, a practical 17 point list of criteria to use for screening shale gas projects and ranking that encompasses geoscience, geochemistry, reservoir engineering, drilling, completions and production operations is developed and explained. Other considerations that will impact shale gas development are identified and discussed. Some key methodologies to incorporate in the evaluation process are also proposed. The outcome of this proposed screening process, if rigorously applied, should quickly identify the projects that have the most likely chance for success for recommendation to management. Examples from active shale gas plays in the United States are used to support these criteria and references to relevant recent publications and presentations are provided.     

Effect of stress sensitivity on displacement efficiency in CO2 flooding for fractured low permeability reservoirs

Carbon dioxide flooding is an effective means of enhanced oil recovery for low permeability reservoirs. If fractures are present in the reservoir, CO2 may flow along the fractures, resulting in low gas displacement efficiency. Reservoir pore pressure will fluctuate to some extent during a CO2 flood, causing a change in effective confining pressure. The result is rock deformation and a reduction in permeability with the reduction in fracture permeability, causing increased flow resistance in the fracture space. Simultaneously, gas cross flowing along the fractures is partially restrained. In this work, the effect of stress changes on permeability was studied through a series of flow experiments. The change in the flowrate distribution in a matrix block and contained fracture with an increase in effective pressure were analyzed. The results lead to an implicit comparison which shows that permeability of fractured core decreases sharply with an increase in effective confining pressure. The fracture flowrate ratio declines and the matrix flowrate ratio increases. Fracture flow will partially divert to the matrix block with the increase in effective confining pressure, improving gas displacement efficiency.     

Achievements of China’s Coal-bed Methane Exploration and Development

Status quo of China＇s coal-bed methane exploration and development China＇s coal-bed methane resources China is abundant in coal-bed methane. The new round of resource assessment indicates that 119 potential coalbed methane targets with burial depth of 2000m and area of 41.5×10^4 km^2 are distributed in more than 45 coalbearing basins. The total resources of coal-bed methane is almost equivalent to that of conventional gas, ranking the third in the world. Among the basins, there are 8 has a coverage of more than 1×10^2m^3, they are Yili, Tuha, Ordos, Dianqiangui, Juggar, Hailaer, Erlian, and Qinshui.     

Significance of Shale Gas Development

Natural gas production from shale formations is growing exponentially in the United States. This paper introduces the five major shale formations in the United States and the technologies used to produce them. The Barnett, Haynesville, Fayetteville, Woodford, and Marcellus combined hold an estimated 978 trillion cubic feet of total gas reserves. These findings along with recent technological advances in horizontal drilling and completion methods have transformed the natural gas exploration and production industry in the U.S. and have fundamentally changed the U.S. energy picture. Specifically this paper states that the United States through the utilization of natural gas from shale can reduce its carbon emissions and can become more energy self-sufficient. Finally, the Harding ＆ Shelton Group states in this paper that the opportunity to locate and produce shale gas in China is very similar to that which has taken place in the United States.     

Progress and Challenges of Shale Gas Exploration and Development in China

China is abandant in shale gas resources. Encouraged by the successful development of shale gas resources in the U. S., China began its shale gas research and exploration activity about 10 years ago. This paper briefed the history, state quo and future of shale gas development in the country. Factors that constrain the shale gas industry there include technology limitations, attitude of the government, environmental concerns and etc. The future of the shale gas industry in China depends heavily on how well these issues are dealt.     

Status Quo of China＇s Petroleum Exploration and Its Prospect

The oil shortages in China have been becoming more serious in the recent years, which set higher pressure on petroleum exploration in China. In order to increase oil and gas supply and safeguard national energy security, it is critical for China to strengthen oil and gas exploration for more and more oil and gas discoveries. Based on summing up the outcomes of petroleum exploration achieved in the 10th Five-Year Plan period （2001-2005）, the paper analyzes the main issues facing China＇s petroleum exploration currently and in the future. What＇ s more, it probes into the trends of petroleum exploration in the future and predicts the growth of oil and gas reserves. The strategic trend of petroleum exploration is to ＂be based on exploration for large basins, look for new exploration areas, maintain the development of eastern China, accelerate the exploration of western China, speed up offshore exploration.＂[第一段]     

Petroleum geology features and research developments of hydrocarbon accumulation in deep petroliferous basins

As petroleum exploration advances and as most of the oil–gas reservoirs in shallow layers have been explored, petroleum exploration starts to move toward deep basins, which has become an inevitable choice. In this paper, the petroleum geology features and research progress on oil–gas reservoirs in deep petroliferous basins across the world are characterized by using the latest results of worldwide deep petroleum exploration. Research has demonstrated that the deep petroleum shows ten major geological features.(1) While oil–gas reservoirs have been discovered in many different types of deep petroliferous basins, most have been discovered in low heat flux deep basins.(2) Many types of petroliferous traps are developed in deep basins, and tight oil–gas reservoirs in deep basin traps are arousing increasing attention.(3) Deep petroleum normally has more natural gas than liquid oil, and the natural gas ratio increases with the burial depth.(4) The residual organic matter in deep source rocks reduces but the hydrocarbon expulsion rate and efficiency increase withthe burial depth.(5) There are many types of rocks in deep hydrocarbon reservoirs, and most are clastic rocks and carbonates.(6) The age of deep hydrocarbon reservoirs is widely different, but those recently discovered are predominantly Paleogene and Upper Paleozoic.(7) The porosity and permeability of deep hydrocarbon reservoirs differ widely, but they vary in a regular way with lithology and burial depth.(8) The temperatures of deep oil–gas reservoirs are widely different, but they typically vary with the burial depth and basin geothermal gradient.(9) The pressures of deep oil–gas reservoirs differ significantly, but they typically vary with burial depth, genesis, and evolution period.(10) Deep oil–gas reservoirs may exist with or without a cap, and those without a cap are typically of unconventional genesis. Over the past decade, six major steps have been made in the understanding of deep hydrocarbon reservoir formation.(1) Deep petroleum in petroliferous basins has multiple sources and many different genetic mechanisms.(2) There are high-porosity,high-permeability reservoirs in deep basins, the formation of which is associated with tectonic events and subsurface fluid movement.(3) Capillary pressure differences inside and outside the target reservoir are the principal driving force of hydrocarbon enrichment in deep basins.(4) There are three dynamic boundaries for deep oil–gas reservoirs; a buoyancy-controlled threshold, hydrocarbon accumulation limits, and the upper limit of hydrocarbon generation.(5)The formation and distribution of deep hydrocarbon reservoirs are controlled by free, limited, and bound fluid dynamic fields. And(6) tight conventional, tight deep, tight superimposed, and related reconstructed hydrocarbon reservoirs formed in deep-limited fluid dynamic fields have great resource potential and vast scope for exploration.Compared with middle–shallow strata, the petroleum geology and accumulation in deep basins are morecomplex, which overlap the feature of basin evolution in different stages. We recommend that further study should pay more attention to four aspects:(1) identification of deep petroleum sources and evaluation of their relative contributions;(2) preservation conditions and genetic mechanisms of deep high-quality reservoirs with high permeability and high porosity;(3) facies feature and transformation of deep petroleum and their potential distribution; and(4) economic feasibility evaluation of deep tight petroleum exploration and development.     

Limitation of fault-sealing and its control on hydrocarbon accumulation—An example from the Laoyemiao Oilfield of the Nanpu Sag

Based on previous studies on the internal structures of fault belts, the fault belts in the Laoyemiao Oilfield of the Nanpu Sag can be divided into three units, a crushed zone, an upper induced fracture zone and a lower induced fracture zone according to the log response characteristics. The upper induced fracture zone is characterized by the development of pervasive fractures and has a poor sealing or non-sealing capability. It therefore can act as pathways for hydrocarbon migration. The lower induced fracture zone consists of fewer fractures and has limited sealing capability. The crushed zone has a good sealing capability comparable to mudstone and can thus prevent lateral migration of fluid. Through physical modeling and comparing laboratory data with calculated data of oil column heights of traps sealed by faults, it is concluded that the fault-sealing capability for oil and gas is limited. When the oil column height reaches a threshold, oil will spill over from the top of reservoir along the lower induced fracture zone under the action of buoyancy, and the size of reservoir will remain unchanged. Analysis of the formation mechanisms of the fault-sealed reservoirs in the Nanpu Sag indicated that the charging sequence of oil and gas in the reservoir was from lower formation to upper formation, with the fault playing an important role in oil and gas accumulation. The hydrocarbon potential in reverse fault-sealed traps is much better than that in the consequent fault-sealed traps. The reverse fault-sealed traps are favorable and preferred exploration targets.     

Shale Gas Well Completions and Maximizing Gas Recoveries

It is shown that stress fields within the earth are the principle control for hydraulic fracture direction in horizontal shale gas wells. Hydraulic fracturing is a process of increasing permeability within gas shales and involves a sophisticated organization of technology, good planning and proper management of equipment over a very short time period to be successful. The direction and extent of the induced fractures can be determined in near real-time at the well site via application of earthquake seismology theory in a now common process known as frac mapping. Next to the horizontal lateral azimuth, the total volume of slurry pumped into the well is a major factor in determining well EURs. Vertical fracture growth can be controlled and is important in concentration of the slurry within the main zone target zone that has the high TOC and porosity. Cemented casing with perforations is currently the most used method for zone isolation. New open-hole sleeve packers may eventually provide more flexibility in fracture design while also providing a means for refracturing multi-stage fractured horizontal wells, a technique not now commonly available. Multi-Stage fracture design requires incorporating rock properties with fracturing effect simulations and then verifying results using 3D reservoir simulations. Maximizing the gas recovery factors and EURs can be accomplished through use of closely spaced laterals with inter-fingered fracture stages and exploiting the stress shadow fracturing phenomenon. Even greater EURs may be possible if the wells can be refractured thereby opening up additional permeability channels. Shale gas development has progressed in an environmentally sensitive manner within the U.S. and will continue in this manner. During the past ten years, all of these technologies have been either newly developed or were the advancement of existing technology with modifications. The opportunity exists to take these proven technologies to other areas of the world for exploitation of shale gas reservoirs.     

Time-dependent borehole stability in hard-brittle shale

Rock damage appears in brittle shale even prior to peak stress(i.e., before failure) due to the occurrence of microcracks in these rocks. In this work, a coupled hydromechanical model was built by incorporating the mechanical and fluid seepage induced stresses around a wellbore during drilling. The borehole instability mechanism of hard-brittle shale was studied. The results show that even if a well is simply drilled into a hard-brittle shale formation, the formation around the borehole can be s...     

Two highly efficient accumulation models of large gas fields in China

Based on reserve abundance,large gas fields in China can be divided into two types：type one of high abundance large gas fields,dominated by structural gas reservoirs; type two of low abundance large gas fields,dominated by stratigraphic and lithologic gas reservoirs.The formation of these two types of large gas fields is related to the highly efficient accumulation of natural gas.The accumulation of high abundance gas fields is dependent on the rapid maturation of the source kitchen and huge residual pressure difference between the gas source kitchen and reservoir,which is the strong driving force for natural gas migration to traps.Whereas the accumulation of low abundance gas fields is more complicated,involving both volume flow charge during the burial stage and diffusion flow charge during the uplift stage,which results in large area accumulation and preservation of natural gas in low porosity and low permeability reservoirs.This conclusion should assist gas exploration in different geological settings.     

The genetic environmental transformation mechanism of coal and oil shale deposits in eastern China's continental fault basins and the developmental characteristics of the area's symbiotic assemblages——taking Huangxian Basin as an example

Coal and oil shale are two common sedimentary energy sources which are often symbiotically developed in Mesozoic– Cenozoic continental fault basins. However, the mechanisms and characteristics of the symbiotic development are not yet clearly known. In this research study, the typical continental fault basins of eastern China were chosen as examples for the purpose of conducting an examination of the coal and oil shale symbiotic assemblage types, genetic environmental differences, and transformation mechanisms, as well as the development and occurrence characteristics of different assemblage types. Through a large number of investigations, systematic experimental testing, and sequence stratigraphy studies, the following conclusions were obtained: (1) There were five types of coal and oil shale symbiotic assemblages observed in the continental fault basins, (2) The development of coal and oil shale deposits requires a warm and humid climate, stable structure, abundant organic matter supply, a certain water depth, and a lower terrestrial source debris supply. The observed differences were that the water depth conditions were diversified in the study area, as well as the sources, types, and content of the organic matter. (3) The rapid transformations of the coal and oil shale genetic environments were mainly controlled by the tectonic settings and climatic conditions, which were determined to control the changes in the water depths, salinity, redox conditions, and lake productivity of the genetic environments. Also, in the symbiotic assemblages, genetic environment changes had induced the development of oil shale deposits, which gradually evolved into coal genetic environments. (4) In the isochronous sequence stratigraphic framework of the coal and oil shale symbiotic assemblages, the lake expansion system tracts (EST) were determined to be the most beneficial to the growth of all the types of assemblages and were characterized by more assemblage development phases and smaller bed thicknesses. From the early to the late stages of the EST, and from the lakesides to lake centers, the thicknesses of the coal seams in the symbiotic assemblages showed trends of thinning, while the thicknesses of the oil shale deposits exhibited increasing trends. The early stages of high stand system tracts were found to be beneficial to the development of the symbiotic assemblages of coal seams overlying the oil shale. This tract type generally presented large bed thicknesses and distribution ranges. The low stand system tract and the late high stand system tract were determined to be unconducive to the development of the symbiotic assemblages.     

Distribution and Development of Unconventional Gas in China

China is abundant in unconventional gas, and stunning growth of gas reserves and production therefore can be expected in foreseeable future because of the exploration and aeve~op,nent of the gas.For the ext 5 to 10 years, ＇conventional gas will still don＇~inate energy market but in a long run, its influence will weaken gradually as unconventional gas kicks in and expands. Though the exploration and development of unconventional gas in China is still at avery early stage, three Chinese oil majors have already assessed the＇resources, including tight gas, coal-bed methane, shale gas and gas hydrate.     

Construction of a novel brittleness index equation and analysis of anisotropic brittleness characteristics for unconventional shale formations

The brittleness prediction of shale formations is of interest to researchers nowadays. Conventional methods of brittleness prediction are usually based on isotropic models while shale is anisotropic. In order to obtain a better prediction of shale brittleness, our study firstly proposed a novel brittleness index equation based on the Voigt–Reuss–Hill average, which combines two classical isotropic methods. The proposed method introduces upper and lower brittleness bounds, which take the uncertainty of brittleness prediction into consideration. In addition, this method can give us acceptable predictions by using limited input values. Secondly, an anisotropic rock physics model was constructed. Two parameters were introduced into our model, which can be used to simulate the lamination of clay minerals and the dip angle of formation. In addition,rock physics templates have been built to analyze the sensitivity of brittleness parameters. Finally, the effects of kerogen,pore structure, clay lamination and shale formation dip have been investigated in terms of anisotropy. The prediction shows that the vertical/horizontal Young's modulus is always below one while the vertical/horizontal Poisson's ratio(PR) can be either greater or less than 1. Our study finds different degrees of shale lamination may be the explanation for the random distribution of Vani(the ratio of vertical PR to horizontal PR).     

CNPC and BP to Tap into Shale Gas Potential

<正>Shale gas development is reportedly included in China’s major projects to be implemented in the coming five years.China National Petroleum Corporation(CNPC)and British Petroleum Group(BP)signed a production sharing contract(PSC)for shale gas exploration,development and production in China in early April 2016.The two oil giants joined hands to unlock the potential of     

China to Be a Big Producer of Natural Gas

China has gained fruitful results in scientific and technical research of natural gas. Up to the present, the proven reserves of natural gas in China reached 438,168 million cubic meters or more. 32 big gasfields have been discovered, of which 7 gasfields with the reserves over 100 billion cubic meters each have been determined and 6 gas provinces have been set up initially; in addition, and important breakthrough has also been made in Songliao Basin. According to the statistics, the annual output of natural gas is 40.77 billion cubic meters and it will break 50 billion cubic meters at the end of this year, reflecting China is striding toward to the big producer of natural gas in the world. The annual gas output in China is expected to reach 85 billion cubic meters by 2010 and exceed 100 billion cubic meters before 2015. The important progresses have been made in both natural gas geologic and exploration theories, and meanwhile big breakthroughs have been achieved in many aspects, such as the hydrocarbon derived from coal beds （natural gas is predominant associated with oil）, geochemistry, geologic feature of gas reservoir and reservoiring theory, and the distribution regularities and exploration direction of large gasfields.