Chlorine disinfection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, total coliforms, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis: revisiting reclaimed water regulations

Pathogenic organisms can be transmitted orally through drinking water or through skin and mucosae by both direct and indirect contact, and their presence in water thus has a negative impact on public health. In wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), water is disinfected to inactivate pathogens. The quantification of several microbial indicators in aquatic systems is required to estimate the biological quality of such systems. So far, coliform bacteria have been used as traditional indicators world-wide. This study has assessed the resistance of total coliforms, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus faecalis to three dosages of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) at two exposure times. The bacteria were isolated from secondary effluents of a WWTP located in Hidalgo, Mexico. The results show that the number of colony-forming units of all studied bacterial types decreased when both the NaClO concentration and exposure times increased. However, they were not eliminated. The inclusion of the species Pseudomonas aeruginosa in regulations for treated wastewater quality as a new indicator is highly recommended due to its importance as an opportunistic pathogen. The detection of this species along with the traditional organisms could be particulary significant for reclaimed water to be used with direct human contact.     

Comparison of three different media for the detection of E. coli and coliforms in water.

The European Drinking Water Directive defines reference methods for the enumeration of microbiological parameters in drinking water. The method to be used for Escherichia coli and coliforms is the membrane filtration technique on Lactose TTC agar with Tergitol 7. Many technical drawbacks of the procedure, as well as its limitations regarding the recent taxonomy of coliforms, make it necessary to evaluate alternative methods. Two alternative assays, a chromogenic media (m-ColiBlu24) and a defined substrate technology-DST test (Colilert 18/Quanty Tray) were compared with the ISO standard with attention to the phenotypic characteristic of the isolates. Results showed that the ISO method failed to detect an important percentage of coliforms and E. coli while m-ColiBlu24 and Colilert 18 provided results in a shorter time allowing the simultaneous detection of E. coli and coliforms with no further confirmation steps.     

Comparison of total and faecal coliforms as faecal indicator in eutrophicated surface water.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of total coliforms (TC) and faecal coliforms (FC) using a membrane filtration method for precise monitoring of faecal pollution in Korean surface water. The samples were collected in Korea from both main rivers and their tributaries. Presumptive TC * FC were enumerated. The ratios of presumptive FC to TC were not constant, but varied widely, and TC were difficult to enumerate because of overgrowth by background colonies. For FC this was not the case. Seven hundred and three purified strains of presumptive TC * FC and their background colonies were biotyped using API 20E. Among 272 presumptive TC, non-faecal related species, Aeromonas hydrophila dominated (34.6%) and E. coli accounted for only 5.1%. In contrast, E. coli made up 89% of the 209 presumptive FC. Furthermore, of 164 background colonies on Endo Agar LES, 54.9% was A. hydrophila, while background colonies on m-FC Agar were few (58 strains), and despite their atypical colony appearance, most of them were biotyped as enteric bacteria. These results reveal that the detection of FC rather than TC using m-FC Agar is more appropriate for faecal pollution monitoring in eutrophicated surface water located in a temperate region.     

Prevalence of human adenoviruses in raw and treated water.

Human adenoviruses (HAds), of which there are 51 antigenic types, are associated aetiologically with gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary tract and eye infections. The clinical importance of HAds and the potential health risks constituted by HAds in water environments are widely recognised. This study was conducted to assess the use of an optimised integrated cell culture molecular-based technique to determine the prevalence of HAds in raw and treated drinking-water supplies in South Africa. Selected supplies were monitored weekly for the presence of adenoviruses over a one-year period (July 2001 to June 2002). Drinking-water supplies were derived from acceptable quality surface water sources using treatment processes that conformed to international standards for the production of safe drinking water. Adenoviruses were detected by amplification in cell cultures, followed by amplifying the extracted nucleic acids using molecular techniques (nested PCR). HAds were detected in 29.8% (59/198) of the treated drinking water, 16% (8/50) of dam water and 44% (22/50) of river-water samples tested. The results of this study confirmed the presence of HAds in some raw and treated drinking water supplies in South Africa.     

Modelling faecal coliforms dynamics in the Seine estuary, France.

A model describing the dynamics of faecal coliforms (FC) in the Seine estuary has been developed and coupled with a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model. As input to this model three types of FC sources were considered: (1) FC transported by the Seine river flow at the estuary entrance at Poses dam; (2) FC brought in through the tributaries of the Seine estuary; and (3) the outfalls of the treated effluents of the WWTPs located along the estuary. As previous studies in the Seine estuary showed that a large proportion of FC was attached to SM, two pools of FC were considered separately in the model: free FC and FC attached to SM. Two main processes controlling the fate of FC in the estuary were considered: mortality and settling. The model calculates for a given discharge of the Seine river at Poses the longitudinal distribution of FC along the estuary. The model was validated by comparison of model calculations with experimental data in various hydrological conditions. The model also correctly reproduced the impact of the main river flow rate on the level of estuarine water's contamination. Finally, the model was used to test different scenarios of sanitation, suggesting priorities for sanitation efforts.     

Repressive effects of yeast extract on photoreactivation of Escherichia coli.

Photoreactivation of Escherichia coli K12 (IFO 3301), in the presence or absence of yeast extract (YE), was investigated after inactivation by low-pressure UV lamp. An endonuclease sensitive site (ESS) assay was used to determine the UV-induced pyrimidine dimers in the genome of E. coli, while a colony-forming ability (CFA) test was also used to examine the survival ratio of E. coli. The YE solution reduced the CFA recovery at a final concentration of 125 mg/L. A dialysis of the YE solution indicated that the YE fraction (with nominal molecular weight >1,000 and <3,500) was effective at repressing the CFA recovery. Interestingly, the repair of ESS was equivalent regardless of the presence of the YE dialysate, while the CFA recovery was significantly repressed in the presence of YE. It was, therefore, suggested that YE components, probably with molecular weights of 1,000-3,500, were effective at repressing the CFA recovery of E. coli without affecting the ESS repair during photoreactivation.     

太湖流域上游降水量对入湖总氮和总磷的影响EI北大核心CSCD

为探究环太湖河道入湖总氮和总磷通量的变化原因,分析了其与太湖流域上游降水量的相关性,并阐明了环太湖河道入湖氮磷的主要来源。结果表明:2010—2019年,太湖流域年平均降水量为1322 mm,较1986—2009年平均降水量增加15%,湖西区和浙西区年平均降水量分别为1263 mm和1552 mm;环太湖河道入湖总氮和总磷平均年通量分别为3.24万t和0.18万t,主要来源于湖西区和浙西区;太湖流域、湖西区、浙西区河道入湖总氮和总磷通量与相应区域年降水量之间均呈显著正相关关系,土地利用类型的差异使得湖西区河道入湖总氮和总磷通量随降水量增加的响应程度要强于浙西区;面广量大的城镇和农业面源污染是入湖氮磷的主要来源之一,降雨导致的部分雨污合流污水入河也是氮磷污染负荷增加的原因之一;湖西区和浙西区的降水量增加,尤其是强降水量增加,不仅会导致面源污染负荷增大,而且会导致太湖上游河网水系水力停留时间减少,降低水体自净能力,增大入湖总氮和总磷通量。     

Detection and occurrence of antimicrobially resistant E. coli in groundwater on or near swine farms in eastern North Carolina.

The use of antibiotics for growth promotion and disease treatment by the commercial swine industry has led to high proportions of multiple antibiotic-resistant enteric bacteria being shed by these animals and concerns about the environmental spread of these bacteria. A study was conducted to quantify the extent of release of antibiotic-resistant E. coli from swine farms into groundwater. Four study sites, two swine farms and two reference sites (crop farms), with known groundwater flow paths were screened for E. coli four times over the course of one and a half years. A total of 100 biochemically-confirmed E. coli were collected from the four sites. There were statistically significantly higher E. coli levels at the two swine farm sites than at the reference sites. The bacterial isolates were tested for antibiotic resistance using a panel of 17 drugs that are typical of human and veterinary use. There were 19 and 71 E. coli isolates from swine farms #1 and #2, respectively, with most (68%) being resistant to 1 -6 antimicrobials. Only one E. coli isolate from each of the reference sites showed antimicrobial resistance traits. The results of this study demonstrate that antibiotic-resistant E. coli strains are present in groundwaters of swine farms with a typical lagoon and land application system for waste management.     

The Effects of Rainfall on Escherichia coli and Total Coliform Levels at 15 Lake Superior Recreational Beaches

Fifteen beaches along Lake Superior were monitored over the course of the 2003 and 2004 summer swimming seasons from mid-May through mid-September. Water samples were collected at these 15 beaches less than 24-h after a rainfall event of at least 6 mm. The effect of rainfall on bacterial concentrations along the Wisconsin shores of Lake Superior was investigated. Water samples were collected at a water depth of 24–30 inches as specified by the requirements of the WI BEACH Program. The Colisure® test was utilized for Escherichia coli (E. coli) and coliform determinations. No relationship between rainfall amount and bacterial concentrations at any of the 15 beaches tested was found. Although other researchers have observed a direct positive relationship between rainfall and E. coli levels in beach water, we found no significant relationship for Lake Superior beaches. This is an important finding given the fact that beach closures are often based upon rainfall alone, rather than on actual E. coli concentration measurements. This study reinforces the fact that the data obtained at one location should not necessarily be extrapolated to beach closure decisions at other locations.     

南宁市设计降雨及其总量控制率时空异质性特征

针对当前我国海绵城市建设及成效考核中设计降雨及其控制率指标单一均化、难以有效定量指导不同下垫面LID设施建设并评价其效果等问题,以南宁市市区为例,基于2020年Quick Bird土地利用及子流域精细划分,根据1981-2010年南宁市0.1°CMFD格点日降雨序列资料,采用ArcGIS空间插值法、《指南》中设计降雨量与控制率关系法以及容积法,分析了研究区日降雨量、设计降雨量及其总量控制率的时空异质性特征,并讨论了现状下垫面调蓄及管网排水对控制率指标的定量影响。结果表明：南宁市市区日降雨频次、年分配、设计降雨量及其控制率均具有显著的时空异质性特征,按75%控制率对应各月的日设计降雨量变化范围为9.72（2月）~32.05 mm（7月）;南宁市主城区（面积占比31.99%）现状年降雨总量控制率普遍低于50%,仅靠绿色LID设施难以实现75%控制率目标,要实现该控制率目标,主城区还需增加调蓄容积120~211 m³/hm²,若考虑管网排水能力70~103 m³/hm²,则所需调蓄容积可减少30~108 m³/hm²。综上,为实现南宁市75%控制率目标,应针对现状下垫面水平,建立考虑时空异质性的不同控制率目标与调蓄容积、管网排水之间的定量函数关系,这是有效提升海绵城市调控雨洪径流能力的一个主要途径。     

Persistence and Potential Growth of the Fecal Indicator Bacteria,Escherichia coli,in Shoreline Sand at Lake Huron

Recent investigations found high abundances of the fecal indicator Escherichia coli in shoreline sand at freshwater beaches, but it is not known whether these high numbers are due to passive filtration/trapping of the bacteria, or to colonization and growth. This study was initiated to test the hypothesis that high abundance can be explained, at least in part, by the ability of E. coli to persist and grow in beach sand. A combination of laboratory and field studies was used to monitor the densities of environmental isolates of E. coli in beach sand. In controlled laboratory microcosm studies using autoclaved beach sand inoculated with E. coli strains previously isolated from ambient beach sand, E. coli densities increased from 2 CFU/g to more than 2 × 10⁵ CFU/g sand after 2 days of incubation at 19°C, and remained above 2 × 10⁵ CFU/g for at least 35 days. In field studies utilizing similarly inoculated beach sand in diffusion chambers incubated at a Lake Huron beach, E. coli also grew rapidly, reaching high densities (approximately 7.5 × 10⁵ CFU/g), and persisting in a cultivable state at high density for at least 48 days. In comparison, E. coli levels in ambient beach sand adjacent to the chambers always had densities <100 CFU/g. Lake Huron beach sand clearly provides nutrients, temperatures, and other conditions needed to support growth of E. coli. The growth of E. coli in sterile sand diffusion chambers to higher levels than occurs in ambient beach sand may indicate the presence in ambient sand of biological controls on bacterial growth, such as predation or competition.     

Uncertainties and trends in extreme rainfall series in Tuscany,Italy: Effects on urban drainage networks design

Sound basin management at urban or greater scale needs reliable design storm definition. A statistical analysis is carried out on extreme annual rainfall series for durations of 1, 3, 6 and 12 hours occurring at two gauges in Tuscany, Italy. Kendall's test is applied to the extremal series to detect a definite increasing (or decreasing) trend. A special form of an ARIMA model is also fitted to the series to quantify possible linear trends and their respective significance. Results show a clearly increasing trend at shortest duration at both gauges, no trend at longer ones. Time evolution of design storms for all durations and return periods up to 25 years is derived and analysed based on Gumbel distribution. Applications are presented concerning impacts of uncertainties for the design of urban drainage networks.     

西咸新区降雨空间非一致性对内涝过程影响模拟研究

为分析降雨空间分布非一致性对城市内涝的影响,应用耦合了水文和水动力过程的数值模型,以陕西省西咸新区海绵城市部分核心试点区为研究区域,对不同重现期设计暴雨及离差系数Cv条件下的内涝过程进行模拟,并对内涝积水总量峰值、重度内涝积水总量峰值及其与均匀降雨情况下的内涝积水削减进行对比分析。结果表明:相比于空间均匀降雨,各重现期下空间分布不均匀的内涝积水量均会减少。各重现期下,Cv值越大,即降雨越不均匀,相比于均匀情况内涝积水削减量越大。当Cv值为0.07、0.11、0.15及0.2时,积水总量削减率分别为1.94%～2.05%,3.00%～3.17%,4.08%～4.23%,4.86%～5.15%。重度内涝情况下,同一Cv值,相比于均匀情况内涝积水削减量随设计降雨重现期变长而增多,当Cv=0.07、Cv=0.11、Cv=0.15、Cv=0.20时,削减率的范围分别为2.00%～2.51%、2.60%～3.82%、3.66%～4.98%、3.80%～5.83%。研究结果揭示了降雨空间分布非一致性对内涝的影响规律,为城市内涝防治工作提供了理论依据。     

陆源淡水流量对海岸水库海水入侵的影响

采用平板水槽系统开展了室内物理模型试验,探究了陆源地下水流量与入库地表水流量对海岸水库海水入侵的影响.结果表明:海岸水库的下盐水楔入侵长度与陆源淡水流量呈对数下降关系,随着陆源淡水流量的增大,下盐水楔入侵长度减小趋势减弱;与陆源地下水相比,入库地表水对海岸水库海水入侵的抑制作用更显著;随着陆源淡水流量增大,海岸水库库底...     

黄河主要产沙区近年降雨及下垫面变化对入黄沙量的影响

近几年,黄河来沙量锐减原因成为人们普遍关注的热点问题。本文以天然产沙量约占流域入黄沙量90%的黄河潼关以上主要产沙区为研究范围,优选了降雨因子和模型的函数型式,改进或构建了各支流在天然时期的降雨~产沙相关模型,进而分析了该区近35年不同时段的降雨和下垫面因素的减沙作用。研究表明,若以各支流1956—1975年前后的降雨-产沙响应关系为基准,1980年以来下垫面减沙作用越来越大,近十多年最为突出。近10年研究区降雨总体偏丰、其中近5年明显偏丰,因此降雨变化不是黄河该时段来沙锐减的原因;2005—2014年和2010—2014年,下垫面因素的实际总减沙量分别为13.87~15.45亿t/a和15.70~18.70亿t/a。     

江西省中北部区域侵蚀性降雨特征及其降雨侵蚀力研究

基于清水桥小流域、中堡港小流域、燕沟小流域及老虎山小流域水土保持监测站点多年的次降雨资料,研究江西省中北部区域各等级侵蚀性降雨及其降雨侵蚀力特征.结果表明:江西省中北部区域侵蚀性降雨场次整体上以中雨、大雨为主;各季节中,春季降雨次数最多,其后依次为夏季、秋季和冬季;各等级降雨场次在各季节中排列均为中雨>大雨>暴雨>大暴...     

Photoreactivation of Escherichia coli following medium-pressure ultraviolet disinfection and its control using chloramination.

Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative disinfection technology to chlorination in recent years. In this study, we investigated the photoreactivation of Escherichia coli following medium-pressure (MP) UV disinfection of synthetic water by a bench-scale collimated beam apparatus. The UV doses ranged from 1.6 -19.7 mWs/cm2 and photoreactivation was investigated for 6 hours under fluorescent light. In addition, chloramination was applied after UV disinfection to investigate its ability to control photoreactivation. It was found that photoreactivation occurred for all UV doses tested and the increase in bacteria numbers ranged from 0.04 to 1.35 log10. However, the degree of photoreactivation decreased with increased UV doses. Chloramination experiments revealed that the addition of 0.5 mg/l of monochloramine resulted in suppression of photoreactivation for 1 hour only. An increased monochloramine dose of 1 mg/l was found to prevent photoreactivation for the entire duration of the experiment. The results of this study have shown that photoreactivation occurs even after MP UV disinfection, although it is of a lesser extent at higher UV doses. This study has also established that secondary chloramination can effectively suppress and eliminate photoreactivation with a chloramine dose of 1 mg/l.     

Escherichia coli removal in waste stabilization ponds: a comparison of modern and classical designs.

Two PC-based waste stabilization pond design procedures, based on parameter uncertainty and 10,000-trial Monte Carlo simulations, were developed for a series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds to produce < or = 1000 E. coli per 100 ml for both 50% and 95% compliance. One procedure was based on the classical Marais equations and the other on the modern von Sperling equations. For the range of parameter variations selected the classical design procedure required less land area and had a shorter hydraulic retention time than the modern design procedure. For both procedures the design for 90% compliance required substantially more land and a longer retention time than the design for 50% compliance. Regulators and designers should seek a balance between system reliability (as set by the percentage compliance specified or adopted) and system costs, especially (but not only) in developing countries. It is recommended that new waste stabilization pond (WSP) systems be designed for compliance with a given E. coli effluent requirement by the classical procedure and that existing overloaded WSP systems be upgraded using the modern procedure.     

PAM和石膏对坡地水分入渗及土壤流失的影响

通过野外小区试验,研究内蒙古砂土地区坡地土壤表层施用PAM、石膏及其混合物后对产流、产沙量的影响。试验结果表明,PAM对试验所用的砂土具有减小降雨入渗及减少土壤流失的作用,而施用石膏既可以增加水分入渗又可以减少土壤流失。施用PAM与石膏的混合物,在PAM用量为1 g/m2时,可以增加土壤水分入渗;在PAM用量为2 g/m2时,石膏用量大时入渗效果比较好,而在石膏用量为20 g/m2时,则不能起到增加水分入渗的作用。     

人工降雨试验中风速对落地雨强空间分布的影响研究

气候变化和城镇化发展使得极端暴雨发生频率增加,实验室降雨试验可为极端暴雨灾害的研究提供数据支撑。通过开展不同情景下的实验室降雨试验与数值模拟,研究了风对落地雨强分布的影响,分析了风导致试验区域平均落地雨强减小的原因。结果表明：（1）风会使试验区域的实际平均落地雨强减小,主要原因是降雨中不同粒径雨滴在风场作用下漂移距离的不同,导致了地面受雨面积扩张。（2）受雨范围内落地雨强的均匀性受风速影响,落地雨强均匀性随风速增加而下降。为提高试验数据的准确性,在进行降雨模拟试验时需要考虑风速的影响,结合实验室实际条件合理确定试验范围。