Modification of electrical conductivity by friction stir processing of aluminum alloys

A wide range of solid-state manufacturing technologies for joining and modification of material original properties are assuming increasing importance in industrial applications. Among these, friction stir-based technologies are the most significant, namely, friction stir processing (FSP) and friction stir surfacing. The electrical conductivity is a significant property undergoing modification, but this property has not been characterized and fully exploited from the technological point of view. The present work aims to study the electrical conductivity behavior in FSP of aluminum alloys in order to identify the major factors governing this property. FSP was applied on AA1100, AA6061-T6, and AA5083-H111 alloys with different parameters. Electrical conductivity profiles were measured at different depths and compared with hardness profiles and microstructures. It was found that solid-state friction stir processing of aluminum alloys lead to electrical conductivity changes of about 4%IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard). These changes are more intense in heat-treatable alloys than in work-hardenable ones. Higher rotating versus travel speed ratios (??/V) induce higher variations in the electrical conductivity. In FSP, the factors governing the electrical conductivity variations are mostly the grain size and the presence of precipitates. It was shown that, for some FSP applications, electrical conductivity may be a process characterization method more precise and meaningful than hardness to assess local material condition.     

On the role of cooling and tool rotational direction on microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir processed AZ91

This paper deals with an experimental investigation focused on the effects of water cooling treatment, friction stir processing pass number, and tool rotational direction on the microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir processed AZ91 magnesium alloy. Specimens were produced using different combinations of process parameters. Parallel to increasing the amount of oxide particles in the processed area, water cooling was found to reduce the final grain size and enhance their hardness and strength. Changing the rotational direction in each pass reduces the grain size severely (from 150 to ~4?μm) and increases the hardness (from 63 to 98?HV) and strength (from ~130 to ~250?MPa). However, no significant difference was found in wear resistance of the specimens produced with different process parameters.     

搅拌摩擦加工次数对AZ91D镁合金组织的影响

研究了搅拌摩擦加工(FSP)次数对AZ91D镁合金组织的影响.结果表明:加工次数对搅拌摩擦区晶粒大小影响不大;但加工次数多可增加搅拌摩擦区组织的面积,并使组织均匀化;使热机械影响区组织向搅拌摩擦区组织发生转变;增大轴肩下压区细晶组织面积,进一步细化轴肩下压区的晶粒.     

Development of a dynamic surface roughness monitoring system based on artificial neural networks (ANN) in milling operation

In the current research, a new method is applied to modify the conventional friction stir welding (FSW) process. Fixture, which fixes the workpieces, is shaken mechanically during FSW in a direction normal to weld line in order to increase the straining of weld region material. In other words, vibration of workpieces is accompanied by the rotating motion of tool. This new process can be described as friction stir vibration welding (FSVW). Al 5052 alloy specimens are welded by two welding methods, FSW and FSVW. Microstructure and mechanical properties of welded specimens are compared. Metallography analyses indicate that grain size decreases and hardness increases as FSVW method is applied. Tensile test results also show that strength and ductility values of friction stir vibration (FSV)-welded specimens are greater than those relating to friction stir (FS)-welded specimens. It is because of more work hardening of plasticized material, during FSVW, which leads to more generation and movement of dislocations. Correspondingly, grain size decreases and mechanical properties improve. Additionally, it is observed that the mechanical properties of the weld improve as vibration frequency increases.     

Effect of heat treatment and number of passes on the microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir processed AZ91C magnesium alloy

In this paper, the effect of heat treatment and number of passes on microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir processed AZ91C magnesium alloy samples were investigated. From six samples of as-cast AZ91C magnesium alloy, three plates were pre-heated at temperature of 375°C for 3 hours, and then were treated at temperature of 415°C for 18 hours and finally were cooled down in air. Three plates were relinquished without heat treatment. 8 mm thick as-cast AZ91C magnesium alloy plates were friction stir processed at constant traverse speed of 40 mm/min and tool rotation speed of 1250 rpm. After process, microstructural characterization of samples was analyzed using optical microscopy and tensile and Vickers hardness tests were performed. It was found that heat treated samples had finer grains, higher hardness, improved tensile strength and elongation relative to non-heat treated ones. As the number of passes increased, higher UTS and TE were achieved due to finer grains and more dissolution of β phase (Mg₁₇Al₁₂). The micro-hardness characteristics and tensile improvement of the friction stir processed samples depend significantly on grain size, removal of voids and porosities and dissolution of β phase in the stir zone.

     

A comparative study on the wear resistance of electrical discharge machined surfaces

The properties of the surface were affected by many factors such as the pulse parameters, tool electrode material, and dielectric liquid in electrical discharge machining. Austenitic, dual-phase, and ferritic steel work materials were electrical discharge machined using graphite and copper tool electrodes in hydrocarbon- based oil and water dielectric liquids. Then the surfaces were analyzed regarding sliding friction wear responses on a comparative basis. The results revealed that the surface wear responses are sensitive to the type of the tool electrode material when machining in water dielectric liquid. However, the use of hydrocarbon-based dielectric liquid substantiality suppresses the influence of tool electrode on surface wear response due to excessive carbon release from the cracked dielectric. The machined surface topographical features were also affected due to the used electrical parameters regarding crater size, globular attachments, and microcracks that led significant alterations in sliding friction response. Primarily, weakly bounded globular attachments on the machined surface were dislodged at the initial stages of the friction tests and led higher sliding distances to the steady friction conditions. Finally, the results were compared with the subsurface microstructural properties to comprehend the wear responses.     

On the role of sliding load and heat input conditions in friction stir processing on tribology of aluminium alloy–alumina surface composites

ABSTRACT

Aluminium (AA5083)-alumina surface composites are prepared by friction stir processing in two conditions of heat input. The low heat (LH) input conditions is achieved at a rotational speed of 710?rpm and a traverse speed of 100?mm/min, and high heat (HH) input conditions are achieved at a rotational speed of 1400?rpm and a traverse speed of 40?mm/min. The tribological characteristics of aluminium alloy, friction stir processed (FSPed) alloy and FSPed surface composites against steel ball are studied at 5, 10 and 20?N load. While no significant influence is found on frictional behaviour, wear resistance of FSPed composites is superior to FSPed alloys. FSPed composites fabricated at HH input conditions exhibited improved wear resistance as compared to LH input condition. Adhesion and delamination are dominant wear mechanisms at 20?N. Debris particles are reduced in size and hydroxidated in sliding of surface composites.     

Influence of FSP on the microstructure,microhardness, intergranular corrosion susceptibility and wear resistance of AA5083 alloy

This article investigates the role of friction stir processing (FSP) process parameters on the evolution of microstructure, hardness, intergranular corrosion resistance and wear resistance of aluminium alloy AA5083. The FSP trials are performed by changing the process parameters as per face-centered central composite design. The friction stir processed (FSPed) specimens subjected to intergranular corrosion test and wear test are characterized using field emission scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Outcomes suggest that grain refinement, dispersion and partial dissolution of secondary phase has simultaneously increased the hardness, intergranular corrosion resistance and wear resistance of the FSPed specimens. The study found that tool rotation speed of 700?rpm, tool traverse speed of 60?mm?min^?1 and shoulder diameter of 15?mm results in maximum hardness, wear resistance and intergranular corrosion resistance.     

两种受电靴材料与不锈钢带电接触摩擦磨损特性的试验研究

在销-盘式摩擦磨损试验机上分别进行了不锈钢／铜基烧结合金材料和不锈钢／铜石墨烧结材料接触的载流摩擦磨损行为的试验研究。在试验中记录了摩擦因数和磨损量的变化,并对磨痕形貌进行了光学显微镜观察。结果显示,电流对2种摩擦副带电接触的摩擦磨损行为有重要的影响。2种材料的摩擦因数随电流的增大而呈现截然相反的变化趋势,但两者的磨损量却随电流的增加而增大。不锈钢／铜基烧结合金材料的磨损机制主要是粘着磨损及氧化磨损。不锈钢／铜石墨烧结材料磨损机制包括磨粒、粘着磨损和电弧烧蚀,其中电弧烧蚀对磨损量的影响随电流的增大而增加。     

紫铜板搅拌摩擦焊接温度场有限元分析

FSW传热过程直接决定工件所经历的热循环,进而影响焊接接头的微观组织和力学性能。同时温度场的分析对于预测接头残余应力和变形,以及焊缝区硬度都具有重要意义。本文在工艺研究基础上,分析了FSW的产热过程;根据搅拌头形状与尺寸,建立了FSW三维传热有限元模型。使用Ansys有限元分析软件,结合有限几个测量点温度变化的实验数据,对6 mm厚度紫铜板FSW焊接过程的温度场进行了有限元分析和计算,获得了该焊接过程的温度场分布与变化规律。计算过程中考虑了工件下表面与支撑板接触热传导对温度场的影响,以及温度对紫铜材料热传导系数的影响,有限元计算结果与实验测量结果接近。     

复合工艺制备的表面微凹坑织构的摩擦性能研究

在构建的激光电化学复合微加工系统上,采用皮秒脉冲激光辐照与电解刻蚀复合加工方法在7075铝合金表面制备出不同尺寸的阵列凹坑微织构。采用共聚焦显微镜观测复合加工织构试样表面形貌,采用MFT-5000型RTEC摩擦磨损试验机研究润滑条件下凹坑织构的摩擦学性能,并探讨直径、深度、面积密度对减摩性能的影响。结果表明:复合加工工艺制备的表面微织构具有良好的表面形貌;润滑条件下材料表面的凹坑型织构能显著改善其摩擦学性能,相比光滑表面最高可降低摩擦因数30%;在实验参数范围内,凹坑的直径与面积密度对材料表面摩擦性能影响较大,凹坑深度对摩擦性能影响较小。     

Residual stresses in aluminium alloy friction stir welds

Residual stresses are detrimental to the fatigue, fracture and corrosion resistance of welds. The literature on residual stress measurements in aluminium alloy friction stir welds is reviewed. The results of a large number of longitudinal residual stress measurements performed by the slitting method on friction stir welds in 2024-T3, 6082-T6 and 5754-H111 aluminium alloys are compared and their origin discussed. From the current investigation, it can be derived that the type of machine used for welding has only little influence on the residual stress profile. The influence of alloy type and welding parameters on the magnitude of the residual stresses and the shape of their distribution across the weld is investigated. Their magnitude is far below the room temperature yield strength of the base material. A distribution with an ??M-shape?? is always found on age hardenable structural alloys (albeit more pronounced in 6082-T6 alloy than in 2024-T3 alloy), while a ??plateau?? is found in the case of the strain hardenable 5754 H111 alloy. The low magnitude and the differences in distribution of the longitudinal residual stress are attributed mainly to the microstructural changes in the weld centre and are discussed based on the hardness profiles performed across the welds. The paper also discusses the reasons why those results are in disagreement with a number of numerical simulations from the literature that do not account for the influence of the welding thermomechanical history on the material microstructure and properties.     

Predictions of the optimized friction stir spot welding process parameters for joining AA2024 aluminum alloy using RSM

The friction stir spot welding process (FSSW) is a variant of the linear friction stir welding process in which the material is being welded without bulk melting. The FSSW parameters such as tool rotational speed, plunge rate, plunge depth, and dwell time play a major role in determining the strength of the joints. A central composite rotatable design with four factors and five levels was chosen to minimize the number of experimental conditions. An empirical relationship was established to predict the tensile shear fracture load of friction stir spot-welded AA2024 aluminum alloy by incorporating independently controllable FSSW process parameters. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize the FSSW parameters to attain maximum lap shear strength of the spot weld.     

铜包石墨含量对铜锰铝复合材料摩擦磨损性能的影响

为改善铜锰铝合金的烧结性能,并提高其在干摩擦下的摩擦磨损性能,以铜包石墨作为自润滑相加入到铜锰铝合金中,采用等离子真空压力烧结方法制备铜锰铝/石墨复合材料,分析铜包石墨含量对复合材料的密度、硬度的影响,探讨不同复合材料在干摩擦和油润滑条件下的摩擦磨损性能.结果表明:相比真空和氢气还原气氛下的烧结方式,等离子体烧结铜锰铝...     

Predictions of the optimized friction stir welding process parameters for joining AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy using preheating system

The scope of this investigation is to evaluate the effect of welding parameters on the mechanical properties and microstructural features of 3-mm-thick AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy subjected to gas heating system as a preheating source during friction stir welding. Toward this end, a gas heating system was designed to heat up the weld seam just ahead of rotating tool to soften the material before being stirred. Three welding parameters, five levels, and a central composite design (CCD) have been used to minimize the number of experimental conditions. The joining parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, and shoulder diameter have a significant influence on determining the mechanical properties of the welded joints. It was found that using preheating system mostly can result in higher total heat input into the weld joint and effectively reduces the formation of defects when unsuitable process parameters were used. Also, an attempt has been made to establish the mathematical model to predict the tensile strength and microhardness of the joints. The optimal welding conditions to maximize the final responses were investigated and reported. The results show that the joint fabricated at a rotational speed of 1,050 rpm, welding speed of 100 mm/min, and shoulder diameter of 14 mm exhibited higher mechanical properties compared to other joints.     

铜-10%石墨合金的载流摩擦磨损性能

为提高铜基合金的载流摩擦磨损性能,采用粉末冶金方法制备了含10%石墨的铜基合金,并在自制的销盘式载流摩擦磨损试验机上进行了不同电流和滑动速度下的摩擦磨损试验.结果表明:与不含石墨的铜合金相比较,在不同电流和滑动速度下,加入10%石墨铜合金的摩擦因数和磨损率均降低,耐磨性能明显提高,摩擦因数稳定.     

Friction stir welding of AZ61A magnesium alloy

This paper deals with the development of an empirical relationship to predict tensile strength of friction stir welded AZ61A magnesium alloy. The process parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial force and tool pin profile play a major role in deciding the tensile strength. The response surface method (RSM) was used to develop the empirical relationship. The four-factor, five-level central composite design was used to minimize the number of experimental conditions. The developed empirical relationship can be effectively used to predict tensile strength of friction stir welded AZ61A magnesium alloy joints at 95 % confidence level.     

Effect of steel skeleton composition on the triboengineering properties of steel-copper pseudoalloys produced by infiltration

The effect of the composition of the skeleton made from steel powder on the triboengineering properties of pseudoalloys produced from copper alloy infiltration is analyzed. It is established that the steel-copper pseudoalloys possess a low friction coefficient depending on the concentration of graphite and additives of solid greases in the steel skeleton and on its original density. Higher copper phase concentration in the pseudoalloys boosts their heat conductivity and alters the structural morphology, thus promoting the triboengineering properties.     

双辉光离子渗铜对缸套-活塞环摩擦学性能的影响*

为研究铜元素对缸套-活塞环摩擦学性能的影响,通过双辉光离子渗透技术在缸套材料表面加工出不同厚度的渗铜改性层,使用RTEC多功能摩擦磨损试验机开展不同负载、不同润滑条件下的模拟试验,采集并分析试验过程中的摩擦因数以及试验后体积磨损量和磨损表面形貌,研究渗铜改性层对缸套材料摩擦学性能的影响规律及作用机制。结果表明：渗铜处理可有效降低缸套-活塞环摩擦副的摩擦因数,减少磨损量;高载荷和干摩擦条件下渗铜改性层的减摩抗磨作用效果尤为显著,最高可使摩擦因数分别降低13.15%和30.86%,磨损量分别降低30.70%和38.57%;渗铜后缸套-活塞环磨损表面形貌平整,摩擦表面形成了铜含量较高的润滑膜层,该表面膜起到了减摩、耐磨的作用。     

材料性能对搅拌摩擦焊焊缝成形的影响

采用左螺纹圆柱搅拌头对O态和T4态2024铝合金进行搅拌摩擦焊接试验,研究了材料性能对搅拌摩擦焊焊缝成形的影响,并用软性约束分析了材料性能对焊核尺寸的影响。试验结果表明：焊缝形貌受焊核周边金属约束的影响,约束程度与材料力学性能和温度有关。O态2024铝合金对接焊时,软性约束体对塑性金属横向迁移的约束小,焊核面积和焊核宽度较T4态2024铝合金的焊核面积和焊核宽度大。两种热处理状态2024铝合金对接焊时,强度和硬度较高的T4态2024铝合金置于返回边时,在焊缝两侧、前进边的软性约束体对塑性金属的约束较返回边的软性约束体对塑性金属的约束强,焊核向返回边偏移;由于在返回边有更多的塑性金属,使其沿焊缝厚度方向向上的运动趋势增强,因此返回边的焊核高度较前进边的焊核高度高。对T4态2024铝合金进行适当的预热,会增强焊缝金属的塑化程度,使其向焊缝两侧的迁移运动趋势增强,焊核宽度及面积增大。