Modelling of austenite decomposition of hot‐rolled plain carbon steels under complex cooling conditions

The purpose of the present work is to develop a mathematical model allowing the simultaneous prediction of both transformation product portions and mean ferrite grain size from the same common principles as a result of austenite decomposition during continuous cooling of plain carbon steels. The transformation products considered specifically are polygonal ferrite and pearlite. The model is based on the classical equations of nucleation‐growth theory and also contains some empirical parameters. The chemical driving forces for nucleation and composition of elements at the phase interfaces are derived from thermodynamic analysis. Three modes of ferrite nucleation are taken into account that correspond to the nucleation on the austenite grain corners, edges and faces. The model considers the reduction of the nucleation sites due to the occupation of austenite grain boundary surface by ferrite grains. Pearlite transformation starts at the γ/α interface and suppresses further ferrite grain growth. The parameters related to ferrite reaction were determined on the basis of a series of austenite transformation kinetic curves and grain size measurements for a steel with the composition 0.084%C‐0.58%Mn‐0.02%Si obtained by dilatometric technique for cooling rates from 0.032 to 2.5 K/s. The parameters related to pearlite reaction were determined on the basis of the data for a steel with 0.66%C. After determination of the model parameters the model was applied to complex cooling conditions of the run‐out table of the hot strip mill at Voest‐Alpine Stahl Linz GmbH. Predicted ferrite grain size appeared to be 1.2 ?1.3 times smaller than the observed one. With regard to experimental data on grain growth in iron, it was suggested that the underestimation of grain size is due to additional ferrite grain growth occurring after the coiling of the steel sheet. Taking that into account provided satisfactory agreement with observed values.     

Nb对2000 MPa桥索钢再加热过程中组织变化的影响

针对不同Nb含量的2种桥索钢,采用热膨胀仪、光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜和硬度测试仪对其在箱式电阻炉连续加热过程中的组织演变和水冷淬火后的硬度进行了对比分析。结果表明:Nb元素可以细化桥索钢的原始组织,使其存在大量的铁素体和渗碳体的晶界,在连续加热过程中的开始阶段提供更多的奥氏体形核位置,使得奥氏体逆共析转变的起始温度降低,而终了温度升高,逆共析转变区域增大。同时,Nb元素形成的碳化物在加热阶段对奥氏体晶粒的长大具有拖拽作用,降低桥索钢在奥氏体形核后的长大速度,使得淬火后得到马氏体的硬度值降低,因此需要较高的温度来溶解合金碳化物使桥索钢充分奥氏体化。     

Phase-field model prediction of nucleation and coarsening during austenite/ferrite transformation in steels

A phase-field simulation is performed to study the kinetics of austenite to ferrite (γ → α) transformation in a low-carbon steel during continuous cooling. Emphasis is placed on the influence of nucleation, along with ferrite grain coarsening behind the transformation front, on microstructural evolution. Results show that grain coarsening is significant even before all nucleation has been completed and occurs via two different coarsening mechanisms, grain boundary migration and ferrite grain crystallographic rotation, both of which can be clearly observed occurring as the simulated microstructure evolves. For some grains, sudden growth jumps are predicted by the model—a phenomenon that has been observed before by synchrotron X-ray diffraction. This study quantitatively demonstrates the phenomenon that increasing cooling rate leads to nucleation off initial austenite grain boundaries, which is also verified by studying the morphology of ferrite grains as predicted using different nucleation mode assumptions. A relationship between nucleation site distribution and the nucleation rate is demonstrated by computer simulation.     

低合金钢焊接粗晶区连续冷却铁素体相变规律

 利用焊接粗晶区连续冷却淬火方法,对比分析了钛处理钢和普通C Mn钢焊接粗晶区连续冷却不同阶段的相变组织,研究了铁素体相变规律。结果表明,C Mn钢焊接粗晶区主要为晶界铁素体+魏氏组织铁素体;钛处理钢焊接粗晶区主要为晶界铁素体+魏氏组织铁素体+晶内铁素体组织。在钛处理钢中,晶界铁素体、魏氏组织铁素体和晶内铁素体的相变开始温度相同,但各自长大的动力学条件不同。当晶内铁素体和魏氏组织铁素体竞争发生相变时,晶内铁素体在晶内弥散分布氧化物夹杂上的非均质形核抑制了魏氏组织铁素体向晶内的长大。     

奥氏体化温度对Ti–Zr处理钢中针状铁素体转变的影响

Ti、Zr的复合氧化物可以有效诱导针状铁素体形核,从而细化晶粒。为了研究Ti–Zr处理钢中针状铁素体转变机理,使用25 kg真空感应炉中熔炼试验所需钢种,向低合金钢中添加了质量分数为0.038%钛和0.008%锆。利用高温激光共聚焦显微镜原位观察了奥氏体化温度对针状铁素体转变行为的变化,使用扫描电镜观察了Ti–Zr处理钢种的夹杂物成分和针状铁素体在夹杂物表面形核,使用光学显微镜观察不同奥氏体化温度下的微观组织变化差异。结果表明,随着奥氏体化温度从1250 ℃增加至1400 ℃,奥氏体晶粒尺寸从125.6 μm 增加至279.8 μm,针状铁素体开始转变温度和侧板条铁素体开始转变温度先增加,在1350 ℃条件下达到最大值,后又降低,针状铁素体的体积分数由39.6%增加至83.6%;Ti–Zr处理钢中核心为Zr–Ti–O,外部为Al–Ti–Zr–O的氧化物为核心表面析出MnS的复合氧化物主要集中在1.5～3 μm,可以有效促进针状铁素体形核,贫Mn区和夹杂物与铁素体之间的良好晶格关系为该型夹杂物能够促进针状铁素体形核机理。奥氏体晶粒尺寸的增加导致多边形铁素形核位点的减少和针状铁素体的形核空间的增加,钛锆复合处理形成大量的有效诱发针状铁素体形核的夹杂物,这共同导致了针状铁素体体积分数增加。      

Microstructural evolution during the austenite-to-ferrite transformation from deformed austenite

It is well established that the ferrite grain size of low-carbon steel can be refined by hot rolling of the austenite at temperatures below the nonrecrystallization temperature (T _nr ). The strain retained in the austenite increases the number of ferrite nuclei present in the initial stages of transformation. In this work, a C-Mn-Nb steel has been heavily deformed by torsion at temperatures below the determined T _nr for this steel. After deformation, specimens are cooled at a constant cooling rate of 1 °C/s, and interrupted quenching at different temperatures is used to observe different stages of transformation. The transformation kinetics and the evolution of the ferrite grain size have been analyzed. It has been shown that the stored energy due to the accumulated deformation is able to influence the nucleation for low undercoolings by acting on the driving force for transformation; this influence becomes negligible as the temperature decreases. At the early stages of transformation, it has been observed that the preferential nucleation sites of ferrite are the austenite grain boundaries. At the later stages, when impingement becomes important, ferrite coarsening accompanies the transformation and a significant reduction in the number of the ferrite grains per unit volume is observed. As a result, a wide range of ferrite grain sizes is present in the final microstructure, which can influence the mechanical properties of the steel.     

C Mn Nb钢在控轧控冷条件下相变后铁素体晶粒尺寸的预测

 基于相变动力学和热力学原理，讨论了椭球形铁素体晶核在奥氏体晶界形核及长大的动力学，在模型中引入变形和冷却的作用，提出了预测C Mn Nb钢经控轧控冷后铁素体晶粒尺寸的方法。用该方法进行的计算机模拟结果和实验结果吻合良好，表明这种方法可用来模拟该相变过程。     

Simulation of austenite decomposition in continuous cooling conditions: a cellular automata-finite element modelling

Transformation of austenite to ferrite under continuous cooling condition was investigated. The heat conduction problem was managed by finite element method while two-dimensional cellular automata modeling was simultaneously performed to predict the progress of austenite decomposition using a two-step algorithm to reduce surface-to-volume ratio. Continuous cooling experiments on low carbon steel were made and the ferrite structure was determined and compared with the simulation data. The predicted and the experimental results demonstrated an acceptable consistency and the activation energy for ferrite growth was determined as 171 kJ/mole. The rate of ferrite transformation increased under examined continuous cooling conditions owing to higher nucleation rate. Moreover, the initial austenite grain size has shown a significant impact on the rate of transformation e.g. in air-cooled samples as the austenite grain size decreased from 24 to 34 µm, the mean ferrite grain size decreased about 8 µm.     

Thermomechanical processing of microalloyed powder forged steels and a cast vanadium steel

The effects of controlled rolling on transformation behavior of two powder forged (P/F) microalloyed vanadium steels and a cast microalloyed vanadium steel were investigated. Rolling was carried out in the austenitic range below the recrystallization temperature. Equiaxed grain structures were produced in specimens subjected to different reductions and different cooling rates. The ferrite grain size decreased with increasing deformation and cooling rate. Ferrite nucleated on second phase particles, deformation bands, and on elongated prior austenite grain boundaries; consequently a high fractional ferrite refinement was achieved. Deformation raised the ferrite transformation start temperature while the time to transformation from the roll finish temperature decreased. Cooling rates in the cast steel were higher than in P/F steels for all four cooling media used, and the transformation start temperatures of cast steels were lower than that of P/F steel. Intragranular ferrite nucleation, which played a vital role in grain refinement, increased with cooling rate. Fully bainitic microstructures were formed at higher cooling rates in the cast steel. In the P/F steels inclusions and incompletely closed pores served as sites for ferrite nucleation, often forming a ‘secondary’ ferrite. The rolling schedule reduced the size of large pores and particle surface inclusions and removed interconnected porosity in the P/F steels. Formerly Postgraduate Researcher in the Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science, UMIST/University of Manchester, United Kingdom     

15CrMoR钢的显微组织与时效冲击性能

 为探索原始组织形态对15CrMoR钢时效过程低温冲击性能的影响,明确15CrMoR钢具有高时效冲击性能稳定性的原始组织形态,通过控制奥氏体化后的冷却方式获得了15CrMoR钢的3种原始组织,使用OM、SEM、EPMA和EBSD等材料结构表征方法和低温冲击测试研究了15CrMoR钢的显微组织和时效态低温冲击性能。结果表明,15CrMoR钢奥氏体化后分别以炉冷、空冷和风冷的方式冷却至室温,分别获得了粗大铁素体+片状珠光体组织、铁素体+退化珠光体组织和粒状贝氏体组织。片状珠光体组织中碳化物主要呈层片状,退化珠光体中的碳化物主要呈断续短杆状和颗粒状,粒状贝氏体中的富碳M-A岛主要沿晶界分布。3种原始组织形态的15CrMoR钢在循环时效过程中均发生了晶界碳化物析出和长大,导致低温冲击性能不断恶化。当晶界碳化物呈链状分布时,15CrMoR钢的低温冲击性能较差。粗大的铁素体+片状珠光体组织晶界面积较少,导致晶界碳化物容易呈链状分布;粒状贝氏体中主要沿晶界分布的富碳M-A岛也容易导致晶界碳化物呈链状分布。因此,原始组织为铁素体+退化珠光体的15CrMoR钢在循环时效过程中具有较好的冲击性能稳定性,经历6次循环时效后,-10 ℃平均冲击吸收功仍高达196 J;而原始组织为铁素体+片状珠光体和原始组织为粒状珠光体的15CrMoR钢,经历4次循环时效后,晶界处已形成呈链状分布的碳化物,-10 ℃平均冲击吸收功均仅为18 J。     

Superledge Model for Interphase Precipitation During Austenite-to-Ferrite Transformation

A model for interphase precipitation has been developed based on the ledge mechanism of austenite-to-ferrite transformation. Carbide precipitation is considered on the migrating ferrite/austenite interface as an interaction of transformation and precipitation kinetics. The derived equations describe sheet spacing and particle spacing of interphase-precipitated carbides as well as the overall interface velocity which are related to the nucleation rates of carbides and ferrite ledges, respectively. The microstructure characteristics of interphase precipitation are predicted as a function of transformation temperature and steel composition and replicate trends observed experimentally.     

Development of Ti-Microalloyed 600 MPa Hot Rolled High Strength Steel

A high strength steel with yield strength on the order of 600 MPa was developed successfully with only addition of titanium alloying element based on a low-carbon steel.The results showed that the hot deformation accelerated ferrite and pearlite transformation and retarded bainite transformation under continuous cooling condition.The microstructure of this steel was mainly composed of fine grained ferrite and carbides distributing along the ferrite grain boundaries.The yield and tensile strengths of steels ...     

The effect of carbides on fracture toughness of steels of ferritic matrix

The authors evaluated the effect of the volume fraction and the dispersion rate of cementite on fracture toughness of ferrite. The investigations were performed at -196°C on five types of carbon steels containing 0.028–1.22% of C in which cementite was coagulated at 700°C for 1–8 h from the quenched state. It was determined that the fracture toughness of steel increases very strongly up to the content of carbides of about 7% by volume. At the same time, hardness and strength of these steels grow. First of all, this is the result of size reduction of ferrite grains by fine carbides. These carbides, distributed almost exclusively on grain boundaries, can only participate in the transmission of the crack to the neighbouring grain. At larger contents of carbides, their dispersion rate decreases while their number in the grain volume grows. Fine carbides from inside of the grains set the path of easy cracking on the boundaries with the ferritic matrix while the coarse carbides crack in front of the fracture. As a result, the steel fracture toughness decreases. The fracture development by means of carbides is less harmful than on the carbide/matrix boundaries.     

关于细化低合金钢铁素体晶粒的研究进展

回顾了近十年来低合金钢相变细化铁素体晶粒的进展。在无应变和有应变的条件下,给出了在相变过程中铁素体形核位置和密度的模型。探讨了晶内铁素体的形核机制;Ｖ－Ｎ钢中ＶＮ是优先生核的位置,更主要的是ＶＮ能抑制晶界铁素体的长大。追踪国际上获得超细晶组织的机理和方法,探讨了晶粒尺寸对屈服强度（σｓ）和冲击韧性转折温度（Ｔｃ）的作用,利用应变诱导动态相变机制获得超细晶组织。     

Effect of Boron on the Isothermal Bainite Transformation

The role of Boron on the isothermal bainitic transformation in low-C, lean-alloyed steel was investigated. B clearly affected both the transformation kinetics and the morphology of isothermally transformed bainite. The effect of B was more noticeable in the high-temperature range of the bainitic transformation. The microstructure of bainite formed at 773 K (500 °C) consisted of a bainitic ferrite matrix and the martensite/austenite constituent. While the martensite/austenite constituent had an elongated morphology in B-free steel, the martensite/austenite constituents in the B-added steel had a granular morphology. Two types of bainite unit nucleation were considered: the initial nuclei and the nuclei formed on previously formed units. Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis showed that the initial bainitic ferrite nuclei were formed at austenite grain boundaries with a Kurdjumov-Sachs (K-S) crystallographic orientation relationship with respect to one of the neighboring austenite grains, revealing the importance of interfacial energy reduction in the nucleation stage. The nuclei of the bainite transformation in the B-added steel were confined to the austenite grain interior, and the bainitic ferrite nuclei had crystallographic orientations limited to K-S variants within the same Bain variant. The characteristic bainite microstructure in B-added steel is due to the inhibition of the bainitic ferrite nucleation at austenite grain boundaries.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In Situ</Emphasis> 3D Neutron Depolarization Study of the Transformation Kinetics and Grain Size Evolution During Cyclic Partial Austenite-Ferrite Phase Transformations in Fe-C-Mn Steels

We have analyzed the evolution of the ferrite fraction and average ferrite grain size during partial cyclic austenite-to-ferrite and ferrite-to-austenite phase transformations in an Fe-0.25C-2.1Mn (wt pct) steel using three-dimensional neutron depolarization (3DND). In the 3DND experiments, the ferrite fraction is derived from the rotation angle of the neutron polarization vector, and the average grain size is determined from the shortening of the polarization vector. From these, the number density of ferrite grains is derived, which indicates that grain nucleation is negligible during partial cycling in the intercritical regime and that all transformation kinetics can be attributed to growth processes only. In the multiple successive cyclic partial transformations, the interfacial migration rate was found to be sluggish due to Mn partitioning. The transformation kinetics determined with 3DND was compared to the predicted behaviors for diffusion-controlled simulations under local equilibrium and para-equilibrium interfacial conditions. It was found that the simulation predictions under local equilibrium only qualitatively capture the transformation kinetic with a difference of one order of magnitude in the variation in the ferrite fraction during cycling. The cyclic behavior of this Fe-0.25C-2.1Mn (wt pct) steel shows that the austenite-ferrite interface indeed migrates back and forth during cycling, while at the same time, there is a gradual increase in both the ferrite fraction and the average ferrite grain size over subsequent cycles. The intrinsic cyclic behavior is only visible after subtracting the effect of the progressive interfacial migration into austenite. The present study demonstrates the advantage of 3DND in studying partial cyclic phase transformations over conventional experimental approaches.     

钒氮钢中晶粒细化研究

 采用Gleeble 3500热模拟试验机，在相同工艺条件下，对比研究了钒氮钢、钒钢以及碳锰钢的晶粒细化效果。结果表明，钒氮钢的晶粒细化效果最显著，铁素体的晶粒尺寸可达61 μm，这主要与在奥氏体区中析出的V(C，N)有关。奥氏体区析出的V(C，N)，不但可抑制奥氏体晶粒长大，同时还可以作为铁素体的形核核心，诱导晶内铁素体形成，大大增加铁素体形核率，从而提高了相变细化的比率。     

Bainite Growth Behavior at Early Stage of Transformation in a High Carbon Silicon-Containing Steel

 The growth behavior at the early stage of bainitic transformation was investigated using optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis and transmission electronic microscopy. The bainite was obtained by isothermal transformation at 200 ℃ only for a short time in a high carbon silicon-containing steel after austenitization at 200 ℃ only for 20 min. Transmission electronic microscopy shows that the bainite appears in the form of plates with a width of about 30 nm, and that the interface of the bainite leading tip is wedge shaped. X-ray diffraction analysis reveals that the bainite plates consist of single ferrite phase, with absence of carbides. The results confirm the occurrence of the moiré which suggests the existence of austenite grain boundaries at the bainite leading tip. Both the lateral growth and longitudinal growth of bainite have weak ability to traverse the lattice-distortion strain fields and austenite grain boundary. The austenite grain boundary impedes the longitudinal growth of the bainite plate, i. e. , the growth of bainite plate stops at the austenite grain boundary. The longitudinal growth of bainite associated with the features of shear mechanism can not completely be in accordance with that of martensitic transformation.     

Effect of Hot Torsion Parameters on Development of Ultrafine Ferrite Grains in Microalloyed Steel

 Hot torsion testing was performed on a low carbon Nb-Ti microalloyed steel to study the effects of hot torsion parameters, strain and strain rate, on ultrafine ferrite grains production through dynamic strain-induced transformation, at a deformation temperature just above Ar3. The initiation and evolution of ultrafine ferrite grains were studied. The results show that the amount of strain and strain rate has conversely effect on the volume fraction and grain size of ultrafine ferrite grains. With increasing strain, the interior of austenite grains become activated as nucleation sites for fine ferrite grains. As a result, ferrite grains continuously nucleate not only at the former austenite grain boundaries but also inside the austenite grains which leads to a rapid increase in volume fraction of ultrafine grains. Increasing of strain rate reduces the tendency of ferrite grains coarsening so that ultrafine ferrite grains are achieved, while the volume fraction of ultrafine grains decreases at the same strain level.     

冷却速率对奥氏体型FeMnAlC钢组织和性能的影响

利用SEM、TEM、XRD、EPMA等手段,研究了水冷、空冷和炉冷对奥氏体基FeMnAlC钢微观组织和力学性能的影响.研究结果表明,3种冷却工艺都获得了以奥氏体为基体的微观组织,均含有大量孪晶,随冷却速度的降低,沿晶界析出的铁素体和κ碳化物逐渐增多,微观结构呈现出从以位错为主到调制结构再到矩形畴界的转变过程,组织演变受...