Reporting practices in confirmatory factor analysis: An overview and some recommendations.

Reporting practices in 194 confirmatory factor analysis studies (1,409 factor models) published in American Psychological Association journals from 1998 to 2006 were reviewed and compared with established reporting guidelines. Three research questions were addressed: (a) how do actual reporting practices compare with published guidelines? (b) how do researchers report model fit in light of divergent perspectives on the use of ancillary fit indices (e.g., L.-T. Hu & P. M. Bentler, 1999; H. W. Marsh, K.-T., Hau, & Z. Wen, 2004)? and (c) are fit measures that support hypothesized models reported more often than fit measures that are less favorable? Results indicate some positive findings with respect to reporting practices including proposing multiple models a priori and near universal reporting of the chi-square significance test. However, many deficiencies were found such as lack of information regarding missing data and assessment of normality. Additionally, the authors found increases in reported values of some incremental fit statistics and no statistically significant evidence that researchers selectively report measures of fit that support their preferred model. Recommendations for reporting are summarized and a checklist is provided to help editors, reviewers, and authors improve reporting practices. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychometric properties of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA): Comparison to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).

The State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA; M. J. Ree, C. MacLeod, D. French, & V. Locke, 2000) was designed to assess cognitive and somatic symptoms of anxiety as they pertain to one's mood in the moment (state) and in general (trait). This study extended the previous psychometric findings to a clinical sample and validated the STICSA against a well-published measure of anxiety, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; C. D. Spielberger, 1983). Patients (N=567) at an anxiety disorders clinic were administered a battery of questionnaires. The results of confirmatory factor analyses (Bentler-Bonnett nonnormed fit index, comparative fit index, and Bollen fit index>.90; root-mean-square error of approximation     

Measurement equivalence: A comparison of methods based on confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory.

Current interest in the assessment of measurement equivalence emphasizes 2 major methods of analysis. The authors offer a comparison of a linear method (confirmatory factor analysis) and a nonlinear method (differential item and test functioning using item response theory) with an emphasis on their methodological similarities and differences. The 2 approaches test for the equality of true scores (or expected raw scores) across 2 populations when the latent (or factor) score is held constant. Both approaches can provide information about when measurrment nonequivalence exists and the extent to which it is a problem. An empirical example is used to illustrate the 2 approaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring motivations for intercollegiate athlete alcohol use: A confirmatory factor analysis of the Drinking Motives Measure.

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Drinking Motives Measure (DMM) on a sample of 227 collegiate athletes. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the 4-factor structure of the DMM provided a better fit than either 2- or 1-factor models, but the overall fit of the 4-factor model was moderate at best. A revised 3-factor model consistent with prior research (M. L. Cooper, M. Russell, J. B. Skinner, & M. Windle, 1992) provided the best fit. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that the 3 DMM factors included in the revised model accounted for 17%-21% of the unique variance on alcohol consumption variables. Results provide preliminary evidence supporting the internal consistency, construct validity, and convergent validity of the revised 3-factor DMM with collegiate athletes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping patterns of African American adolescents: A confirmatory factor analysis and cluster analysis of the Children's Coping Strategies Checklist.

The current study examined patterns of coping strategies in a sample of 497 low-income urban African American adolescents (mean age = 12.61 years). Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the 4-factor structure of the Children's Coping Strategies Checklist (T. S. Ayers, I. N. Sandler, S. G. West, & M. W. Roosa, 1996) was not replicated in the current sample. The final model was a 3-factor model that was invariant across gender. The Active Coping factor and Revised Avoidant Coping factor were highly correlated in the present sample. Results of cluster analyses identified 2 coping groups differing on the frequency of coping use and preferred coping methods. The 1st group was more likely to use avoidant coping and less likely to use social support-seeking coping than the 2nd group, which showed more consistent use across coping strategies. There were no significant differences in the association between stressors and symptoms across the 2 groups. The results highlight the importance of examining factor structures of coping measures with underrepresented groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Skills of Cognitive Therapy (SoCT): A new measure of patients' comprehension and use.

The authors describe the development and psychometric properties of a new measure called the Skills of Cognitive Therapy (SoCT) in depressed adults and their cognitive therapists. The 8-item SoCT assesses patients' understanding and use of basic cognitive therapy (CT) skills rated from the perspectives of both observers (SoCT-O; therapists in this report) and patients (SoCT-P). Ratings of patients' skill usage are made on 5-point Likert-type scales ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always or when needed). Higher scores reflect greater patient skill in applying cognitive therapy principles and coping strategies. To develop this scale, a 33-item pool was used, rated by both patients and their therapists at the middle and end of CT (Ns = 359–416), and evaluated the reliability and concurrent and predictive validity of both versions of the scale. The SoCT has excellent internal consistency reliability and moderate correlations between the observer and patient versions. It is important to note that the SoCT showed good predictive validity for response when collected at the midpoint of acute phase CT. Considering both patients' self-ratings and clinicians' SoCT ratings, the odds ratio for responding to CT was 2.6. The practical utility of the SoCT is discussed, as well as its theoretical importance in research of patient CT skills (e.g., acquisition, comprehension, and generalization) as putative moderators or mechanisms of symptom change in the therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Treating chronic depression with disciplined personal involvement: Cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP).

Reviews the book, Treating chronic depression with disciplined personal involvement: Cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP) by James P. McCullough Jr. (see record 2006-11486-000). The premise of this book is that therapeutic neutrality does not apply to the psychotherapy of chronically depressed individuals, and that disciplined personal involvement is an efficacious and perhaps necessary component of their treatment. Cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP) is a learning model, in which the therapist focuses on teaching patients to recognize the consequences of their behavior. McCullough addresses practical and theoretical objections to this therapeutic approach, which include fears of overinvolvement, and inappropriate behavior, and clinical risks of flooding patients with excessively personal information and content. Ultimately, most readers will finish reading this volume with many open questions, some specific to McCullough's approach, others related to the challenging condition of chronic depression itself. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detecting differential item functioning with confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory: Toward a unified strategy.

In this article, the authors developed a common strategy for identifying differential item functioning (DIF) items that can be implemented in both the mean and covariance structures method (MACS) and item response theory (IRT). They proposed examining the loadings (discrimination) and the intercept (location) parameters simultaneously using the likelihood ratio test with a free-baseline model and Bonferroni corrected critical p values. They compared the relative efficacy of this approach with alternative implementations for various types and amounts of DIF, sample sizes, numbers of response categories, and amounts of impact (latent mean differences). Results indicated that the proposed strategy was considerably more effective than an alternative approach involving a constrained-baseline model. Both MACS and IRT performed similarly well in the majority of experimental conditions. As expected, MACS performed slightly worse in dichotomous conditions but better than IRT in polytomous cases where sample sizes were small. Also, contrary to popular belief, MACS performed well in conditions where DIF was simulated on item thresholds (item means), and its accuracy was not affected by impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and Validation of the Self-Awareness and Management Strategies (SAMS) Scales for Therapists.

The Self-Awareness and Management Strategies (SAMS) Scales were created to assess therapists' experiences of hindering self-awareness during counseling sessions. A sample of 301 therapists completed the SAMS, along with 2 other measures used to establish validity. In addition to asking about therapists' experiences with their self-awareness, the SAMS also assessed the strategies therapists use to manage hindering self-awareness. The results suggest that there is strong initial evidence for the reliability and validity of the SAMS Scales. A factor analysis of the SAMS Scales resulted in 2 subscales for hindering self-awareness (Anxious and Distracting) and 5 subscales of management strategies (Self-Care, Relaxation, Focusing on the Client, Suppression, and Use of Basic Techniques). Future research ideas and implications for counseling are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping flexibility and trauma: The Perceived Ability to Cope With Trauma (PACT) scale.

Theories about coping with potential trauma have emphasized the importance of concerted focus on processing the traumatic event. However, empirical evidence also suggests that it may be salubrious to distract oneself, remain optimistic, and focus on moving past the event. These seemingly contradictory perspectives are integrated in the concept of coping flexibility. This investigation reports the development and validation of a brief questionnaire, the Perceived Ability to Cope With Trauma (PACT) scale, with 2 scales that measure the perceived ability to focus on processing the trauma (trauma focus) and to focus on moving beyond the trauma (forward focus). In addition, we created a single flexibility score that represented the ability to use both types of coping. Participants included an Israeli sample with potential high trauma exposure and a sample of American college students. The factor structure of the PACT was confirmed in both samples. Preliminary evidence was obtained for the PACT's convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity. Both the Forward Focus and Trauma Focus scales were independently associated with better adjustment, and each scale independently moderated the impact of heightened trauma exposure. Similarly, the combination of these scales into a single parsimonious flexibility score also moderated trauma exposure. Limitations of and future research with the measure are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validating the Children's Behavior Questionnaire in Dutch children: Psychometric properties and a cross-cultural comparison of factor structures.

In this article, we examined the factorial validity of the Dutch translation of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) and the Very Short Form scores. In addition, we conducted cross-cultural comparisons of temperament structure. In total, 353 parents of 6- to 8-year-olds completed the instrument. The original higher order factor structure of the different CBQ forms was generally replicated and represented the three broad dimensions of temperament: Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. For the Standard Form, results demonstrated a relatively high degree of factor similarity of the Dutch sample with other cultures (e.g., China and Japan). The findings provide evidence for applicability of the CBQ in Western Europe as a promising instrument to comprehensively assess reactive and self-regulative temperamental dimensions in young children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The GIFT Program for Major Depression: Integrating Group, Individual, and Family Treatment.

Traditional models of psychotherapy for depression have focused primarily on modification of a single area of functioning (e.g., cognition or behavior). The Group, Individual, and Family Treatment (GIFT) program is an integrative psychotherapy program designed to build on current cognitive and behavioral theory and technology, with modifications intended to create a more transportable and cost-effective version of existing group treatment. The authors describe the emotional fitness model of mental health that underlies the GIFT program. They then describe how GIFT structurally integrates group, individual, and family-based interventions. The authors explain how GIFT uses cognitive, behavioral, and acceptance-based strategies. They then present data from an open, uncontrolled trial. Thirteen of 20 (65%) patients initially presenting for treatment of major depression completed the GIFT program. Symptom reduction, as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory-II, was comparable to other group treatments for depression (pretreatment-posttreatment effect size, d = 1.95). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sensitivity to change of the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale-Extended (BPRS-E): An item and subscale analysis.

The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) is the most commonly used outcome measure for the severely and persistently mentally ill (SPMI) population, possessing good interrater reliability, concurrent validity, and a strong factor structure. However, psychometric study of the extended version of the BPRS (the BPRS-E) is limited when compared with earlier versions (BPRS and BPRS-A). This study examined the item, factor, and diagnosis-specific sensitivity to change of the BPRS-E, the most recent version of this popular scale. Assessments were conducted at 90-day intervals with 201 adult psychiatric inpatients at the Utah State Hospital, yielding 786 symptom ratings. Of note was that ratings were conducted by independent assessors who were unaware of patients' treatment status. All but 2 of the 24 BPRS-E items, all 4 factors, and the total score were found to be sensitive to change when comparing patients' admission and discharge scores. Patient diagnosis was not associated with item, factor, or total score sensitivity to change. These findings extend the psychometric support for the BPRS-E and have implications for assessing outcome with the SPMI population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: A quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V.

The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) groups disorders into diagnostic classes on the basis of the subjective criterion of "shared phenomenological features." There are now sufficient data to eliminate this rational system and replace it with an empirically based structure that reflects the actual similarities among disorders. The existing structural evidence establishes that the mood and anxiety disorders should be collapsed together into an overarching class of emotional disorders, which can be decomposed into 3 subclasses: the bipolar disorders (bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia), the distress disorders (major depression, dysthymic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder), and the fear disorders (panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobia). The optimal placement of other syndromes (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder) needs to be clarified in future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in the Bergen Child Study: A conceptually and methodically motivated structural analysis.

Objective: To test Goodman’s theoretical 5-factor model of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in an analysis of the Norwegian parent (P) and teacher (T) versions of the questionnaire. Method: The T-SDQ was analyzed for 8,999 (95.4% of all) children in primary school grades 2–4 in Bergen, Norway, whereas the P-SDQ was examined for 6,430 children (68.2%). Main analyses were exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Results: The analyses supported a modestly modified version of Goodman’s 5-factor model for both the P-SDQ and the T-SDQ. The correlations between latent factors were high, particularly when the conduct problem factor was involved, reflecting a high level of overlap between the problem areas. Cross-informant correlation between parents and teachers was moderate to high for the problem subscales and considerably higher than the corresponding correlation between subscales that has been found in earlier studies. Conclusions: None of the alternative models derived from the exploratory factor analysis fitted the data better than a slightly modified version of Goodman’s 5-factor model, which showed acceptable goodness of fit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The measurement of everyday cognition (ECog): Scale development and psychometric properties.

This article describes the development and validation of an instrument to assess cognitively mediated functional abilities in older adults, Everyday Cognition (ECog). The ECog is an informant-rated questionnaire comprised of multiple subscales. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine its factor structure. Convergent validity was evaluated by comparing it to established measures of everyday function. External validity was evaluated by comparing ECog results across different clinical groups [cognitively normal, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), dementia]. CFA supported a seven-factor model including one global factor and six domain-specific factors (Everyday Memory, Language, Visuospatial Abilities, Planning, Organization, and Divided attention). The ECog correlated with established measures of functional status and global cognition, but only weakly with age and education. The clinical groups performed differently in each domain. In addition to the global factor, the Everyday Memory factor independently differentiated MCI from Normal, while the Everyday Language domain differentiated Dementia from MCI. Different subtypes of MCI also showed different patterns. Results suggest the ECog shows promise as a useful tool for the measurement of general and domain-specific everyday functions in the elderly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of perfectionism, depression, and therapeutic alliance during treatment for depression: Latent difference score analysis.

The authors examined the longitudinal relationship of patient-rated perfectionism, clinician-rated depression, and observer-rated therapeutic alliance using the latent difference score (LDS) analytic framework. Outpatients involved in the Treatment for Depression Collaborative Research Program completed measures of perfectionism and depression at 5 occasions throughout treatment, with therapeutic alliance measured early in therapy. First, LDS analyses of perfectionism and depression established longitudinal change models. Further LDS analyses revealed significant longitudinal interrelationships, in which perfectionism predicted the subsequent rate of depression change, consistent with a personality vulnerability model of depression. In the final LDS model, the strength of the therapeutic alliance significantly predicted longitudinal perfectionism change, and perfectionism significantly predicted the rate of depression change throughout therapy. These results clarify the patterns of growth and change for these indicators throughout depression treatment, demonstrating an alternative method for evaluating longitudinal dynamics in therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)