Topological photoaffinity labeling of the rabbit ileal Na+/bile-salt-cotransport system

For the investigation of the topology of the rabbit ileal Na+/bile-salt-cotransport system, composed of a 93-kDa integral membrane protein and a peripheral 14-kDa bile-acid-binding protein (ILBP), we have synthesized photolabile dimeric bile-salt-transport inhibitors (photoblockers), G1-X-G2, where two bile acid moieties (G1 and G2) are tethered together via a spacer, X, and where one of the two bile acid moieties carries a photoactivatable group. These photoblockers specifically interact with the ileal Na+/bile-salt-cotransport system as demonstrated by a concentration-dependent inhibition of [3H]cholyltaurine uptake by rabbit ileal brush-border membrane vesicles and by inhibition of photolabeling of the 93-kDa and 14-kDa bile-salt-binding proteins by 7,7-azo and 3,3-azo derivatives of cholyltaurine. Ileal bile-salt uptake was specifically inhibited by the photoblockers, which were not taken up themselves by the small intestine as demonstrated by in vivo ileal perfusion. Dependent on the photoblocker used several polypeptides in the molecular-mass range of 14-130 kDa were labeled. The cytoplasmically attached 14-kDa ILBP was significantly labeled only by inhibitors that are photoactivatable in bile acid moiety G1, suggesting that during binding and translocation of a bile-salt molecule by the ileal bile-salt-transport system the steroid nucleus gets access to the cytoplasmic site of the ileal brush-border membrane first. Photoaffinity labeling in the frozen state with the transportable 3,3-azo and 7,7-azo derivatives of cholyltaurine revealed a time-dependent increase in the extent of labeling of the 14-kDa and 93-kDa proteins, suggesting a labeling of these proteins from the cytoplasmic site of the ileal brush-border membrane. By photoaffinity labeling in the frozen state with the various photoblockers time-dependent changes in the extent of photoaffinity labeling of bile-salt-binding proteins were observed, demonstrating the possibility of topological analysis of the rabbit ileal Na+/bile-salt-cotransport system.     

Intestinal bile acid absorption. Na(+)-dependent bile acid transport activity in rabbit small intestine correlates with the coexpression of an integral 93-kDa and a peripheral 14-kDa bile acid-binding membrane protein along the duodenum-ileum axis

The anatomical localization of the Na+/bile acid cotransport system from rabbit small intestine was determined using brush border membrane vesicles prepared from eight different segments of the small intestine. Na(+)-dependent transport activity for bile acids, both for [3H]taurocholate and [3H]cholate, was found in the distal segment 8 only representing the terminal 12% of the small intestine. In contrast, the Na(+)-dependent D-glucose transporter and the H(+)-dependent oligopeptide transporter were found over the whole length of rabbit small intestine in all segments. Photoaffinity labeling with 7,7-azo- and 3,3-azo-derivatives of taurocholate with subsequent fluorographic detection of labeled polypeptides after one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis showed that an integral membrane polypeptide of M(r) 87,000 is present in the entire small intestine, whereas an integral membrane protein of M(r) 93,000 together with a peripheral membrane protein of M(r) 14,000 are exclusively expressed in the distal small intestine correlating with Na(+)-dependent bile acid transport activity. Photoaffinity labeling with the cationic bile acid derivative 1-(7,7-azo-3 alpha,12 alpha-dihydroxy-5 beta[3 beta-3H]cholan-24-oyl)-1,2- diaminoethane hydrochloride and 7,7-azo-3 alpha,12 beta-dihydroxy-5 beta[12 alpha-3H]cholan-24-oic acid did not result in a specific labeling of the above mentioned proteins, demonstrating their specificity for physiological bile acids. Photoaffinity labeling of the 93- and 14-kDa bile acid-binding proteins was strongly Na(+)-dependent. Significant labeling of the 93- and 14-kDa proteins occurred only in the presence of Na+ ions with maximal labeling above 100 mM [Na+] showing a parallel [Na+] dependence to transport activity. Inactivation of Na(+)-dependent [3H]taurocholate uptake by treatment of ileal brush border membrane vesicles with 4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazol chloride led to a parallel decrease in the extent of photoaffinity labeling of both the 93- and 14-kDa protein. Sequence analysis of the membrane-bound 14-kDa bile acid-binding protein surprisingly revealed its identity with gastrotropin, a hydrophobic ligand-binding protein exclusively found in the cytosol from ileocytes and thought to be involved in the intracellular transport of bile acids from the brush border membrane to the basolateral pole of the ileocyte. In conclusion, the present studies suggest that both an integral 93- and a peripheral 14-kDa membrane protein, identified as gastrotropin, and both exclusively expressed in the terminal ileum, are essential components of the Na+/bile acid cotransport system in rabbit terminal ileum.     

Characterization of AT4 receptor from bovine aortic endothelium with photosensitive analogues of angiotensin IV

Newly developed photosensitive analogues of AngIV were used to characterize the AT4 receptor of bovine aortic endothelial cells. The photoactivatable AngIV analogues [N3-Phe6]AngIV and [Bpa6]AngIV displayed high affinities for AT4 receptor, with IC50's of 3.7 +/- 0.3 and 19.1 +/- 3.5 nM, respectively. The radioiodinated ligands showed a good efficiency of photoaffinity labeling demonstrated by high proportions (60-75%) of acid-resistant binding. Covalently labeled receptor was solubilized under reducing or nonreducing conditions and subjected to SDS-PAGE. Under nonreducing conditions, autoradiographies revealed a major band of Mr 186 +/- 2 kDa and a minor band of Mr 241 +/- 6 kDa. The labeling of these bands was completely abolished in the presence of 10 microM AngIV. Under reducing conditions, only the low Mr 186 kDa band was revealed. After endoglycosidase digestion with an enzyme that cleaves N-linked saccharides, the Mr of the denatured AT4 receptor was decreased by 31% to a value of 129 +/- 10 kDa. Kinetic studies revealed a stepwise process of AT4 receptor deglycosylation by endoglycosidase F, suggesting at least two different sites of N-linked saccharides. Mild trypsin treatment of photolabeled endothelial cell membranes released a large fragment of Mr 177 +/- 3 kDa which accounts for about 95% of the whole receptor molecular mass. These results demonstrate that [N3-Phe6]AngIV and [Bpa6]AngIV are very efficient tools for selective photoaffinity labeling of AT4 receptor. We have shown that AT4 receptor is a 186 kDa integral membrane glycoprotein with a very large extracellular domain. These properties are consistent with those of a growth factor or cytokine receptor.     

Photoaffinity labeling of the head-activator receptor from hydra

A photoaffinity ligand for the head-activator (HA) receptor from hydra was synthesized using solid-phase peptide synthesis and coupling of two HA peptides over their epsilon-amino groups of Lys7 with succinimidyl esters. The new ligand, Bpa-HA-HA bipeptide, contains one normal HA peptide and another where p-benzoylphenylalanine (Bpa) was added at the amino terminus to allow ultraviolet activation and Tyr11 instead of Phe11 for radioiodination. The 125I-Bpa-HA-HA bipeptide bound with nanomolar affinity to the HA receptor from the multiheaded mutant of Chlorohydra viridissima as measured in a filter assay. After photoaffinity labeling of the hydra membrane fraction, a 200-kDa band was detected using reducing or non-reducing SDS/PAGE and autoradiography. Unlabeled HA derivatives, but no other neuropeptides, inhibited the labeling. Competition experiments with HA-HA homobipeptide in the nanomolar range indicate that predominantly the low-affinity and not the high-affinity HA receptor was photolabeled. Further evidence that the labeled molecule is the HA receptor comes from specific photoaffinity labeling with a second ultraviolet-activatable ligand containing p-nitrophenylalanine. The HA receptor could be functionally solubilized with Triton X-100 or Chaps. In the solubilizate the 200-kDa HA receptor was photolabeled specifically by both ligands. Liquid-phase isoelectric focussing of the solubilizate indicated a pI of about 5.4 of the photolabeled molecule. After chemical deglycosylation with trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, the apparent molecular mass of the labeled molecule was decreased to 180 kDa, indicating that the receptor is glycosylated.     

Interaction of beta-lactam antibiotics with H+/peptide cotransporters in rat renal brush-border membranes

Two H+/peptide cotransporters, PEPT1 and PEPT2, are expressed in the kidney, mediating the renal tubular reabsorption of oligopeptides and beta-lactam antibiotics. We examined the interactions of beta-lactam antibiotics with peptide transporters in rat renal brush-border membranes by evaluating the inhibitory potencies of the antibiotics against glycylsarcosine transport. Western blot analysis revealed that PEPT1 and PEPT2 were expressed in the renal brush-border membranes with the apparent molecular masses of 75 and 105 kDa, respectively. Using renal brush-border membrane vesicles, the uphill transport of glycylsarcosine was observed in the presence of an inward H+ gradient and an inside-negative membrane potential. Two transport systems with high affinity (Km of 50 microM) and low affinity (Km of 1.2 mM) appeared kinetically to mediate the glycylsarcosine uptake. The inhibition constants of the antibiotics for glycylsarcosine transport were more closely correlated with those in stable LLC-PK1 cells transfected with rat PEPT2 rather than PEPT1 cDNA. The beta-lactam antibiotics with an alpha-amino group showed trans-stimulation effects on the glycylsarcosine uptake, suggesting that these antibiotics and glycylsarcosine share a common peptide transporter. However, the antibiotics lacking an alpha-amino group failed to show the trans-stimulation effect. It is concluded that amino-beta-lactam antibiotics at therapeutic concentrations interact predominantly with PEPT2 localized in the brush-border membranes of rat kidney.     

Characterization of the mechanism of action of tachykinins in rat striatal cholinergic interneurons

Plasma membranes of neutrophil cells contain the redox component of the O2(-)-generating NADPH oxidase complex, namely a heterodimeric flavocytochrome b consisting of an alpha subunit of 22 kDa and a beta subunit of 85-105 kDa of a glycoprotein nature. The NADPH oxidase is dormant in resting neutrophils. When neutrophils are exposed to a variety of particulate or soluble stimuli, the oxidase becomes activated, due to the assembly on the membrane-bound flavocytochrome b of three cytosolic factors, p47phox, p67phox and Rac 2 (or Rac 1). The effect of phenylarsine oxide (PAO), which reacts specifically with vicinal and neighbouring thiol groups in proteins, was assayed on the NADPH oxidase activity of bovine neutrophils, elicited after activation of the oxidase in a cell-free system consisting of plasma membranes and cytosol from resting neutrophils, GTP[S], ATP and arachidonic acid; the effect of PAO on the oxidase activation itself was measured independently. PAO preferentially inhibited oxidase activation rather than the elicited oxidase activity, and inhibition resulted from binding of PAO to the membrane component of the cell-free system. To determine the PAO-binding protein responsible for the loss of oxidase activation, we used photoaffinity labeling with a tritiated azido derivative of PAO, 4-[N-(4-azido-2-nitrophenyl)amino-[3H]acetamido]phenylarsine oxide, ([3H]azido-PAO). Photoirradiation of plasma membranes from resting neutrophils in the presence of [3H]azido-PAO resulted in the prominent labeling of a protein of 85-105 kDa whose migration on SDS/PAGE coincided with that of the beta subunit of flavocytochrome b as identified by immunoreaction. Upon deglycosylation, the photolabeled band at 85-105 kDa was shifted to 50-60 kDa as was the immunodetected beta subunit. Similar results were obtained with isolated flavocytochrome b in liposomes. Photoaffinity labeling of the beta subunit of the membrane-bound flavocytochrome b or the isolated flavocytochrome b in liposomes resulted in abolition of oxidase activation in the reconstituted cell-free system. Incorporation of [3H]azido-PAO into flavocytochrome b was negligible when photoaffinity labeling was performed on neutrophil membranes that had been previously activated. The results suggest that the beta subunit of flavocytochrome contains two target sites for PAO which are accessible in resting neutrophils, but not in activated neutrophils.     

Biosynthesis of chondroitin sulfate. Purification of glucuronosyl transferase II and use of photoaffinity labeling for characterization of the enzyme as an 80-kDa protein

A photoaffinity analogue, [beta-32P]5-azido-UDP-GlcA, was used to photolabel the enzymes that utilize UDP-GlcA in cartilage microsomes and rat liver microsomes. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of photolabeled cartilage microsomes, which are specialized in chondroitin sulfate synthesis, showed a major radiolabeled band at 80 kDa and other minor radiolabeled bands near 40 and 60 kDa. Rat liver microsomes, which are enriched for enzymes of detoxification by glucuronidation, had a different pattern with multiple major labeled bands near 50-60 and 35 kDa. To determine that the photolabeled 80-kDa protein is the GlcA transferase II, we have purified the enzyme from cartilage microsomes. This membrane-bound enzyme, involved in the transfer of GlcA residues to non-reducing terminal GalNAc residues of the chondroitin polymer, has now been solubilized, stabilized, and then purified greater than 1350-fold by sequential chromatography on Q-Sepharose, heparin-Sepharose, and WGA-agarose. The purified enzyme exhibited a conspicuous silver-stained protein band on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis that coincided with the major radiolabeled band of 80 kDa. SDS-polyacrylamide gel analysis of photoaffinity-labeled active fractions from the Q-Sepharose, heparin-Sepharose, and WGA-agarose also indicated only the single radiolabeled band at 80 kDa. Intensity of photolabeling in each of the fractions examined coincided with enzyme activity. The photolabeling of this 80-kDa protein was saturable with the photoprobe and could be inhibited by the addition of UDP-GlcA prior to the addition of the photoprobe. Thus, the photolabeling with [beta-32P]5-azido-UDP-GlcA has identified the GlcA transferase II as an 80-kDa protein. The purified enzyme was capable of transferring good amounts of GlcA residues to chondroitin-derived pentasaccharide with negligible transfer to pentasaccharides derived from hyaluronan or heparan.     

The major site of photoaffinity labeling of the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor by [3H]flunitrazepam is histidine 102 of the alpha subunit

The alpha subunit of the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA(A)) receptor is known to be photoaffinity labeled by the classical benzodiazepine agonist, [3H]flunitrazepam. To identify the specific site for [3H]flunitrazepam photoincorporation in the receptor subunit, we have subjected photoaffinity labeled GABA(A) receptors from bovine cerebral cortex to specific cleavage with cyanogen bromide and purified the resulting photolabeled peptides by immunoprecipitation with an anti-flunitrazepam polyclonal serum. A major photolabeled peptide component from reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography of the immunopurified peptides was resolved by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate. The radioactivity profile indicated that the [3H]flunitrazepam photoaffinity label is covalently associated with a 5.4-kDa peptide. This peptide is glycosylated because treatment with the enzyme, peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminyl)asparagine amidase, reduced the molecular mass of the peptide to 3.2 kDa. Direct sequencing of the photolabeled peptide by automated Edman degradation showed that the radioactivity is released in the twelfth cycle. Based on the molecular mass of the peptides that can be generated by cyanogen bromide cleavage of the GABA(A) receptor alpha subunit and the potential sites for asparagine-linked glycosylation, the pattern of release of radioactivity during Edman degradation of the photolabeled peptide was mapped to the known amino acid sequence of the receptor subunit. The major site of photoincorporation by [3H]flunitrazepam on the GABA(A) receptor is shown to be alpha subunit residue His102 (numbering based on bovine alpha 1 sequence).     

Intestinal absorption of peptides by coupling to bile acids

Poor intestinal absorption of peptides greatly limits their use as drugs for the treatment of chronic diseases. Since bile acids are efficiently absorbed by an active, Na(+)-dependent transport system in the ileum of mammals, model peptides of different chain length were attached to the 3-position of modified 3 beta-(omega-amino-alkoxy)-7 alpha, 12 alpha-dihydroxy-5 beta-cholan-24-oic acid. These peptide-bile acid conjugates inhibited Na(+)-dependent [3H]taurocholate uptake into brush-border membrane vesicles isolated from rabbit ileum in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, photoaffinity labeling of the bile acid-binding proteins of M(r) 93,000 and 14,000, identified as the protein components of the ileal Na(+)-dependent bile acid transport system in rabbit ileum (Kramer, W., Girbig, F., Gutjahr, U., Kowalewski, S., Jouvenal, K., Müller, G., Tripier, D., and Wess, G. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268, 18035-18046) by the photoreactive taurocholate analogue, (3,3-azo-7 alpha, 12 alpha-dihydroxy-5 beta [7 beta, -12 beta-3H]cholan-24-oyl)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, was inhibited by the peptide-bile acid conjugates. In contrast, the parent peptides and amino acids neither had a significant effect on [3H]taurocholate uptake by ileal brush-border membrane vesicles nor on photoaffinity labeling of the ileal bile acid-binding membrane proteins. The inhibitory effect of peptide-bile acid conjugates on [3H]taurocholate transport and photoaffinity labeling of the bile acid-binding proteins in rabbit ileal vesicles decreased with increasing chain length of the attached peptide radical. By in vivo ileum perfusion in anesthetized rats an intestinal absorption of the bile acid conjugate S3744 of the fluorescent oxaprolylpeptide 4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-beta-Ala-Phe-5-Opr-Gly (S1037) and secretion of the intact compound into bile could be demonstrated, whereas the parent peptide S1037 or its t-butylester S4404 were not absorbed. The intestinal absorption of S3744 showed a similar temperature dependence as [3H]taurocholate absorption and was inhibited by the presence of taurocholate indicating a carrier-mediated uptake of S3744 via the ileal bile acid transporter. In conclusion, these results indicate that oligopeptides can be made enterally absorable by coupling to modified bile acid molecules making use of the specific intestinal absorption pathway for bile acids. This finding may be of great importance for the design and development of orally active peptide drugs.     

Dopamine transporter ligand binding domains. Structural and functional properties revealed by limited proteolysis

Dopamine transporters (DATs) are members of the Na+- and Cl--dependent neurotransmitter and amino acid transporter family predicted by hydrophobicity analysis to have 12 transmembrane-spanning helices. The structure of DAT was studied using the photoaffinity compounds [125I]1-[2-(diphenylmethoxy)-ethyl]-4-[2-(4-azido-3-iodophenyl) ethyl] piperazine ([125I]DEEP), a 1-(2-diphenylmethoxy)-ethyl-4-(3-phenyl propyl)piperazine (GBR analog), and [125I]-3beta-(p-chlorophenyl)tropane-2beta-carboxylic acid, 4'-azido-3'-iodophenylethyl ester ([125I]RTI 82), a cocaine analog, which had been shown in a previous study to become incorporated into different regions of the DAT primary sequence. The proximity of the photolabeled binding sites to integral membrane structures was investigated by subjecting photolabeled membrane suspensions to limited proteolysis with trypsin and separately analyzing the resulting membranes and supernatants for the presence of photolabeled DAT fragments. Trypsin treatment of [125I] DEEP-labeled membranes generated labeled 45- and 14-kDa DAT fragments that immunoprecipitated with an epitope-specific antiserum generated against amino acids 42-59 near the first putative transmembrane domain, whereas [125I]RTI 82 was found in 32- and 16-kDa tryptic fragments that precipitated with an antiserum directed against a sequence near transmembrane domain 4 (amino acids 225-238). All of the photolabeled fragments were recovered in the protease-treated membranes, indicating that they possess integral membrane structures that prevent their release from the membrane as soluble forms. The size of the two smallest fragments in conjunction with their retention in the membrane suggests that incorporation of the photoaffinity ligands occurs in or near membrane spanning regions and delineates the maximum possible distance between the transmembrane structures, incorporated photolabel, and antibody epitopes. Carbohydrate analysis of the fragments identified sialic acids and N-linked oligosaccharides exclusively on the 45-kDa [125I]DEEP-labeled fragment, which, based on size, would be expected to contain four consensus glycosylation sites between putative transmembrane domains 3 and 4. Photoaffinity labeling after trypsin treatment of membranes showed that the larger but not the smaller fragments retain binding capacity, as the 45- and 32-kDa fragments were capable of becoming photolabeled. Binding of photoaffinity ligands at these fragments was displaced with the same pharmacology as that of intact DATs. These results verify numerous aspects of DAT structure and topology heretofore only predicted from theoretical considerations and extend our knowledge of DAT structure-function properties.     

Biosynthesis of glucosidase II in suspension-cultured soybean cells

Since antibody against homogeneous mung bean glucosidase II cross-reacted with a 110-kDa protein from cultured soybean cells and also precipitated this activity from extracts of soybean cells, we used this antibody to examine the biosynthesis, turnover, and cellular localization of glucosidase II in soybean cells. Time course studies of [35S]methionine incorporation into glucosidase II (as well as pulse-chase studies) showed that this enzyme is synthesized as a 110-kDa protein that does not change in size from very early labeling times to those as late as 60 h, indicating the absence of a cleavable signal sequence or extensive modification of the carbohydrate. Furthermore, glucosidase II remained susceptible to digestion by endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase H throughout this time period, and the major oligosaccharide structure was a Man9(GlcNAc)2 with small amounts of Glc1Man9(GlcNAc)2. The half-life of the biosynthesized glucosidase II was about 36 h, and no secretion of this protein occurred. Membranes of gently disrupted cells were separated by sucrose-density gradient centrifugation, and fractions were tested for glucosidase II activity as well as for marker enzymes. The bulk of the glucosidase II activity fractionated with endoplasmic reticulum membranes. Detergent solubility studies with Triton X-114 suggested that glucosidase II did not have a hydrophobic domain and is probably a luminal endoplasmic reticulum protein.     

Glucuronidation of retinoids by rat recombinant UDP: glucuronosyltransferase 1.1 (bilirubin UGT)

Rat liver recombinant BR1UGT1.1 was found to have significant activity toward retinoid substrates. UGT1.1 glucuronidation activity was 91 +/- 18 pmol/mg x min for atRA and 113 +/- 19 pmol/mg x min for 5,6-epoxy-atRA. The apparent K(M) and V(max) of atRA acid glucuronidation by UGT1.1 were 59.1 +/- 5.4 microM and 158 +/- 43 pmol/mg x min, respectively. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis of UGT1.1-transfected HK293 membrane proteins photolabeled with [11,12-3H]atRA revealed a protein of approximately 56 kDa that was labeled by [3H]atRA, detected by anti-pNP UGT antibody and not present in membranes from nontransfected HK293 cells. Liver microsomes from Gunn rats, which lack UGT1.1, had significant activity toward atRA (111 +/- 28 pmol/mg x min).     

The oestrogen receptor regulates NFkappaB and AP-1 activity in a cell-specific manner

It has recently been identified the PEPT2 cDNA encodes the high affinity proton-coupled peptide transporter in rabbit kidney cortex. PEPT2 represents a 729 amino acid protein with 12 putative transmembrane domains that mediates H+/H3O+ dependent electrogenic transmembrane transport of di- and tripeptides and of selected peptidomimetics. Here the functional expression of PEPT2 in the methylotropic yeast Pichia pastoris is described under the control of a methanol inducible promoter. Western blot analysis of Pichia cell membranes prepared from a recombinant clone identified a protein with an apparent molecular mass of about 85-87 kDa. Peptide uptake into cells expressing PEPT2 was up to 80 times higher than in control cells. Cells of recombinant clones showed a saturable peptide transport activity for the hydrolysis resistant dipeptide 3H-D-Phe-Ala with an app. K0.5 of 0.143 +/- 0.016 mM. Inhibition of 3H-D-Phe-Ala uptake by selected di- and tripeptides and beta-lactam antibiotics revealed the same substrate specificity as obtained in renal membrane vesicles or for PEPT2 when expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. A novel fluorescence based assay for assessing transport function based on a coumarin-labeled fluorescent peptide analogue has also been developed. Moreover, using a histidyl auxotrophe strain a PEPT2 expressing cell clone in which transport function can be monitored by a simple yeast growth test was established. In conclusion, this is one of only a few reports on successful functional expression of mammalian membrane transport proteins in yeast. The high expression level will provide a simple means for future studies either on the structure-affinity relationship for substrate interaction with PEPT2 or for selection of mutants generated by random mutagenesis.     

Guinea worm disease--a chance for successful eradication in the Volta Region, Ghana

Parsley cells recognize the fungal phytopathogen Phytophthora sojae through a plasma membrane receptor. A 13 amino acid oligopeptide fragment (Pep-13) of a 42 kDa fungal cell wall glycoprotein was shown to bind to the receptor and stimulate a complex defense response in cultured parsley cells. The Pep-13 binding site solubilized from parsley microsomal membranes by non-ionic detergents exhibited the same ligand affinity and ligand specificity as the membrane-bound receptor. Chemical crosslinking and photoaffinity labeling assays with [125I]Pep-13 revealed that a monomeric 100 kDa integral plasma membrane protein is sufficient for ligand binding and may thus constitute the ligand binding domain of the receptor. Ligand affinity chromatography of solubilized microsomal membrane protein on immobilized Pep-13 yielded a 5000-fold enrichment of specific receptor activity.     

Distinct characteristics of resistance to Borrelia burgdorferi-induced arthritis in C57BL/6N mice

The diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI) is a 10-kDa highly evolutionarily conserved multifunctional protein. In mammals, one of DBI's functions is in the activation of steroid hormone biosynthesis via binding to a specific outer mitochondrial membrane receptor (benzodiazepine receptor, BZD) and promoting cholesterol transport to the inner membrane. In this work, a multitiered approach was utilized to study the role of this receptor-like activity in ecdysteroidogenesis by larval insect prothoracic glands (PGs). First, both DBI protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels were correlated with peak PG ecdysteroid production. In vitro ecdysteroid production was stimulated by the diazepam analogue FGIN 1-27 and inhibited anti-DBI antibodies. The DBI protein was found distributed throughout PG cells, including regions of dense mitochondria, supposed subcellular sites of ecdysteroid synthesis. Finally, a potential mitochondrial BZD receptor in PG cells was demonstrated by photoaffinity labeling. These results suggest an important role for the insect DBI in the stimulation of steroidogenesis by prothoracic glands and indicate that a pathway for cholesterol mobilization leading to the production of steroid hormones appears to be conserved between arthropods and mammals.     

Molecular cloning of sucrase-isomaltase cDNA in the house musk shrew Suncus murinus and identification of a mutation responsible for isolated sucrase deficiency

Isolated sucrase deficiency has been demonstrated in a line of house musk shrew, Suncus murinus (laboratory name: suncus). This animal belongs to the order Insectivore and is phylogenetically different from ordinarily used laboratory animals. They are believed to have evolved with mainly animal food without sucrose. To study the molecular basis of the sucrase deficiency in suncus, we cloned 6. 0-kilobase (kb) sucrase-isomaltase (SI, EC 3.2.1.48-10) cDNA from suncus intestinal cDNA library. The cDNA clone contained a 5442-base pair (bp)-long open reading frame preceded by an in frame termination codon. The deduced 1813-amino acid sequence showed 68.6, 71.2, and 74.7% similarity with those of rat, rabbit, and human, respectively. A cleavage site between isomaltase and sucrase as well as the region surrounding the catalytic sites for sucrase and isomaltase were conserved among the species. Out of 18 potential N-linked glycosylation sites, 5 were common among all 4 species. In the connecting segment which was enriched with O-linked glycosylation sites in the other species, only two sites were present in suncus. Northern blot analysis revealed that the 6.0-kb SI mRNA was expressed in the KAT line with intact sucrase-isomaltase activity. In contrast, 3.0-kb SI mRNA was expressed in suncus of the MI line with isolated sucrase deficiency. The 3.0-kb mRNA cosegregated with sucrase deficiency phenotype as an autosomal recessive trait. Sequence analysis revealed a 2-nucleotide deletion at position 2767-2768, which results in a frameshift and an immature termination codon. The cDNA of the MI line diverged from that of the KAT line at position 2865, having an 18-bp unique sequence followed by a poly(A) tail. The mutant cDNA encodes 922 amino acid residues which preserves the region for isomaltase but lacks that for whole sucrase. While the cells transfected with the plasmids expressing SI in the KAT line showed both sucrase and isomaltase activity, the plasmids expressing MI line cDNA showed only isomaltase activity. Thus it was concluded that the mutation in the SI gene was responsible for isolated sucrase deficiency in the MI line.     

Management of residual mass in advanced seminoma: results and recommendations from the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center

Transport of presecretory proteins into mammalian microsomes involves a microsomal protein which is sensitive to photoaffinity labeling with 8-azido-ATP. Typically, protein folding within the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum of mammalian cells depends on ATP and the member of the Hsp70 protein family, BiP. Here we addressed the question of whether protein transport into and folding within microsomes are differentially affected by photoaffinity labeling of microsomes with 8-azido-ATP. Folding of heterodimeric luciferase to the native state was more azido-ATP-sensitive compared to transport of the precursors of the two subunits. Therefore, we conclude that the microsomal protein which is responsible for the ATP-dependence of protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum is sensitive to photoaffinity labeling with 8-azido-ATP and that this microsomal protein is distinct from the microsomal ATP-binding protein which is involved in protein transport.     

The predominant contribution of oligopeptide transporter PepT1 to intestinal absorption of beta-lactam antibiotics in the rat small intestine

Although recent evidence suggests that certain beta-lactam antibiotics are absorbed via a specific transport mechanism, its nature is unclear. To confirm whether peptide transport in the rat can be largely ascribed to the intestinal oligopeptide transporter PepT1, the transporter has been functionally characterized and its significance in the intestinal absorption of beta-lactam antibiotics was evaluated. For evaluation of transport activity complementary RNA (cRNA) of rat PepT1 was synthesized in-vitro and expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. cRNA induced uptake of several beta-lactam antibiotics and the dipeptide [14C]glycylsarcosine; this was specifically inhibited by various dipeptides and tripeptides but not by their constituent amino acids or by tetra- or pentapeptides. The transport activity of PepT1 for beta-lactam antibiotics correlated well with their in-vivo intestinal transport and absorption. Furthermore, mutual inhibitory effects on uptake were observed between glyclsarcosine and beta-lactam antibiotics. Hybrid depletion of the functional expression of rat PepT1 in oocytes injected with rat intestinal epithelial total mRNA was studied using an antisense oligonucleotide corresponding to the 5'-coding region of PepT1. In oocytes injected with rat mRNA pre-hybridized with the antisense oligonucleotide against rat PepT1, the uptake of [14C]glycylsarcosine was almost completely abolished, whereas its uptake was not influenced by a sense oligonucleotide for the same region of PepT1. Similarly, the uptake of beta-lactam antibiotics was also reduced by the antisense oligonucleotide against rat PepT1. These results demonstrate that the intestinal proton-coupled oligopeptide transporter PepT1 plays a predominant role in the carrier-mediated intestinal absorption of beta-lactam antibiotics and native oligopeptides in the rat.     

Is E37, a major polypeptide of the inner membrane from plastid envelope, an S-adenosyl methionine-dependent methyltransferase?

Using antibodies raised against E37, one of the major polypeptides of the inner membrane from the chloroplast envelope, it has been demonstrated that a single immunologically related polypeptide was present in total protein extracts from various higher plants (monocots and dicots), in photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic tissues from young spinach plantlets, as well as in the cytoplasmic membrane from the cyanobacteria Synechococcus. This ubiquitous distribution of E37 strongly suggests that this protein plays an envelope-specific function common to all types of plastids. Comparison of tobacco and spinach E37 amino acid sequences deduced from the corresponding cDNA demonstrates that consensus motifs for S-adenosyl methionine-dependent methyltransferases are located in both sequences. This hypothesis was confirmed using a biochemical approach. It was demonstrated that E37, together with two minor spinach chloroplast envelope polypeptides of 32 and 39 kDa, can be specifically photolabeled with [3H]-S-adenosyl methionine upon UV-irradiation. Identification of E37 as a photolabeled polypeptide was established by immunoprecipitation. Furthermore, photolabeling of the three envelope polypeptides was specifically inhibited by very low concentration of S-adenosyl homocysteine, thus providing evidence for the presence within these proteins of S-adenosyl methionine- and S-adenosyl homocysteine-binding sites that were closely associated. Taken as a whole these results strongly suggest that E37 is an ubiquitous plastid envelope protein that probably has an S-adenosyl methionine-dependent methyltransferase activity. The 32 and 39 kDa envelope polypeptides probably have a similar methyltransferase activity.     

Specific photoaffinity labeling of Tyr-49 on the light chain in the steroid-combining site of a mouse monoclonal anti-estradiol antibody using two epimeric 6alpha- and 6beta-(5-azido-2-nitrobenzoyl)amidoestradiol photoreagents

A mouse monoclonal anti-7-(O-carboxymethyl)oximinoestradiol antibody was photoaffinity labeled with two cross-reactive 6alpha- and 6beta-(5-azido-2-nitrobenzoyl)amido[17alpha-3H]estradiol photoreagents (6alpha- and 6beta-ANBA-[17alpha-3H]estradiol). Covalently bound radioactivity was found exclusively on the light chain. The maximal level of specific incorporation was 0.18 mol of label per mole of antibody for both photoreagents. In both cases, tryptic digestion of the photolabeled light chain, immunopurification with the immobilized antibody, reverse-phase liquid chromatography, and Edman degradation showed the presence of radioactive peptide GLM-([3H]X)-HGNTLEDGIPSR derived from peptide 46-61 of the light chain sequence (determined from cDNA) in which the unidentified amino acid corresponding to X is a Tyr residue. Two other radioactive peptides were also isolated, one corresponding probably to the methionine sulfoxide derivative of the peptide 46-61 photolabeled with the 6beta-reagent and the other to the N-terminal tetrapeptide 46-49 of the peptide 46-61 photolabeled with the 6alpha-reagent. In all cases, the main peak of radioactivity was released at the fourth Edman cycle, thus suggesting that the same Tyr-49 residue on the light chain was photolabeled. This residue is contiguous to the N-terminal amino acid of the second hypervariable complementary determining region 50-56 of light chain. Covalent labeling was confirmed by mass spectrometry of photolabeled peptides which showed molecular ion values corresponding to the addition of the photoactive 6alpha- or 6beta-ANBA-estradiol nitrene derivatives to the peptide.