A simplified method for analysis of a piled embankment reinforced with geosynthetics

Piled embankments provide an economic solution to the problem of constructing embankments over soft soils. The piles and geosynthetic combination can alleviate the uneven surface settlements that sometimes occur in embankments supported by piles without reinforcement. The main focus of this paper is to present a new method for analysis of an embankment of granular fill on soft ground supported by a rectangular grid of piles and geosynthetic. This method is based on consideration of the arching effect in granular soil and similar to the method proposed by Low, B.K., Tang, S.K., Choa, V. [1994. Arching in piled embankments. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 120 (11), 1917–1938]. The main refinements are: inclusion of a uniform surcharge load on the embankment fill, individual square caps were used, and taking into account the skin friction mechanism, which contributes to soil–geosynthetic interface resistance. Using this method, the influence of embankment height, soft ground depth, soft ground elastic modulus, and geosynthetic tensile stiffness on efficiency, stress concentration ratio, settlement ratio, tension of geosynthetic, and axial strain of geosynthetic are investigated. The results show that inclusion of a geosynthetic membrane can increase the fill load carried by piles. As a result, both the total and differential settlements of the embankment can be reduced. The new design method was verified against several current design methods. Theoretical solution showed that BS8006 [1995. Code of Practice for Strengthened/Reinforced Soils and other Fills. British Standards Institution, London, p. 162] and Guido, V.A., Kneuppel, J.D., Sweeny, M.A. [1987. Plate loading tests on geogrid-reinforced earth slabs. In: Proceedings of the Geosynthetics '87, New Orleans, USA, IFAI, pp. 216–225] methods overpredict the vertical stress acting on the geosynthetic due to that the reaction of the soft ground on the geosynthetic is not considered in their methods. It also showed that the present method is in good agreement with Low, B.K., Tang, S.K., Choa, V. [1994. Arching in piled embankments. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 120 (11), 1917–1938] method.     

路堤荷载下土工织物散体桩复合地基离心模型试验

进行了2组不同筋材刚度土工织物散体桩复合地基路堤离心模型试验,和1组碎石桩复合地基路堤的对比试验,以研究其在真实应力条件下的性状及稳定性。研究结果表明:随着筋材刚度的增大,地基中的超孔隙水压力略有减小,桩顶和桩间土沉降明显减小,而桩顶和桩间土之间的差异沉降明显增大;桩土应力比随筋材刚度的增大先增长明显,而后趋于缓慢;当筋材刚度较低或上覆荷载很大时,土工织物散体桩可发生显著的弯曲变形而引起较大的沉降,碎石桩则在软土中容易发生鼓胀变形而引起很大的沉降,但两者均未在复合地基中形成剪切滑移的趋势。     

Displacements of column-supported embankments over soft clay after widening considering soil consolidation and column layout: Numerical analysis

The common challenges for constructing embankments on soft clay include low bearing capacity, large total and differential settlements, and slope instability. Different techniques have been adopted to improve soft clay, such as the use of foundation columns including stone columns, deep mixed columns, and vibro-concrete columns, etc. Due to increased traffic volume, column-supported embankments may be widened to accommodate the traffic capacity need. Adding a new embankment to an existing embankment generates additional stresses and deformations under not only the widened portion but also the existing embankment. Differential settlements between and within the existing embankment and the widened portion may cause pavement distresses. Limited research has been conducted so far to investigate widening of column-supported embankments. In this study, a two-dimensional finite difference numerical method was adopted. This numerical method was first verified against field data and then used for the analysis of widened column-supported embankments over soft clay. The modified Cam-Clay model was used to model the soil under the existing embankment and the widened portion. Mechanically and hydraulically coupled numerical models were created to consider the consolidation of the foundation soil under the existing embankment and the widened portion. Different layouts of foundation columns under the existing embankment and the widened portion were investigated. The numerical results presented in this paper include the vertical and horizontal displacements, the maximum settlements, the transverse gradient changes, and the stress concentration ratios, which depended on column spacing. The columns installed under the connection side slope were most effective in reducing the total and differential settlements, horizontal displacement, and transverse gradient change of the widened embankment.     

Geosynthetic reinforced piled embankment modeling using discrete and continuum approaches

Understanding the load transfer mechanism can support engineers having more economical design of geosynthetic reinforced piled embankments. This study aims to investigate the load transfer mechanisms by two different numerical methods including the Discrete Element Method (DEM) and the Finite Difference Method (FDM). The DEM model adopts (a) discrete particles to simulate the micro-structure of the granular materials and (b) coupled discrete element – finite element method (DEM-FEM) to capture the interaction between granular materials and geotextiles. On the other hand, the FDM model uses an advanced constitutive soil model considering the hardening and softening behaviour of the granular materials. The numerical results show that the geotextiles can only contribute to the vertical loading resistance in cases where the soils between piles are soft enough. In terms of design, an optimum value of the geotextile tensile stiffness can be found considering the load, the soft soil stiffness and the thickness of the embankment. Both the DEM and the FDM show that a high geotextile tensile stiffness is not required since an extra stiffness will slightly contribute to the efficiency of the geosynthetic reinforced piled embankments. Nevertheless, both models are useful to optimize the design of geosynthetic reinforced piled embankments.     

Geogitterbewehrte Dämme auf pfahlähnlichen Elementen: Grundlagen und Projekte

Geogrid‐reinforced embankments on piles or columns: Methods and case studies. Embankments on soft subsoil supported by piles or similar elements and high‐strength geosynthetic reinforcement on top of them have important advantages compared to “conventional” embankment foundation: no consolidation time is required, there is no import/export of additional embankment soil to accelerate consolidation or to compensate the settlement, practically no additional settlement occurs under traffic etc. The application of such solutions is growing recently worldwide. Corresponding design procedures meantime have more than 10 years of history going through significant development, scientific and verification efforts across Europe. A critical overview of these procedures is presented pointing out the increasing precision and reliability. Some typical interesting projects from the last 10 years are briefly described and discussed including both railroad and road applications, different concepts and geosynthetic reinforcements, measurement programs and experience.     

桩承式加筋路堤的改进设计方法研究

具有深厚软土层的路堤若采用桩承加筋式复合地基,可提高地基承载力,减少路堤不均匀沉降,也可布置成疏桩,降低工程成本,在国内外得到越来越广泛的应用,但还没有可靠实用的设计计算方法,且现有的设计均忽略了桩间土的承载作用,这与工程实际有很大差别。基于三维土拱效应,改进Hewlett土拱效应算法,得到桩承式路堤的桩土荷载分担比,进而考虑加筋体影响以及桩间土承载作用,推导桩土应力比计算式,并将此式应用于路堤的设计。     

A simplified model for the analysis of piled embankments considering arching and subsoil consolidation

An analytical model is presented for the design of geosynthetic-reinforced and pile-supported (GRPS) embankments in this paper. The originality of the proposed solution lies in the fact that it allows considering the influence of the subsoil consolidation on the soil arching and geosynthetic strain. A nonlinear function is implemented to describe the subsoil behavior with the consolidation process in a closed-form solution. A simplified approach is then presented to link the arching development with the subsoil consolidation. The arching theory is combined with the tensioned membrane theory and the soil-structure interaction mechanisms to provide a simple and suitable design approach that enables a realistic approximation for designing soil–geosynthetic systems. The analytical model is capable of performing an ultimate and serviceability limit state design of GRPS embankments. While current methods cannot fully address the important effects of the subsoil consolidation, the analytical results suggested that arching and differential settlements increase with an increase of the subsoil consolidation degree. The analytical model is compared to field measurements and five other design standards for several full-scale field tests to study its validity. The results showed a satisfactory agreement between the proposed model and measured data, and generally better results are obtained as compared with other design methods.     

Experimental studies of the geosynthetic anchorage – Effect of geometric parameters and efficiency of anchorages

The soil reinforcement by geosynthetic is widely used in civil engineering structures: embankments on compressible soil, slope on stable foundations, embankments on cavities and retaining structures. The stability of these structures specially depends on the efficiency of the anchors holding the geosynthetic sheets. Simple run-out and wrap around anchorages are two most commonly used approaches. In order to improve the available knowledge of the anchorage system behaviour, experimental studies were carried out. This paper focuses on a three-dimensional physical modelling of the geosynthetics behaviour for two types of anchors (simple run-out and wrap around). The pull-out tests were performed with an anchorage bench under laboratory controlled conditions with three types of geosynthetic (two geotextiles and one geogrid) and in the presence of two types of soil (gravel and sand).The results show that there is an optimum length for the upper part of the geosynthetic for the wrap around anchorage.     

Geosynthetic-encased stone columns: Numerical evaluation

Stone columns (or granular piles) are increasingly being used for ground improvement, particularly for flexible structures such as road embankments, oil storage tanks, etc. When the stone columns are installed in extremely soft soils, the lateral confinement offered by the surrounding soil may not be adequate to form the stone column. Consequently, the stone columns installed in such soils will not be able to develop the required load-bearing capacity. In such soils, the required lateral confinement can be induced by encasing the stone columns with a suitable geosynthetic. The encasement, besides increasing the strength and stiffness of the stone column, prevents the lateral squeezing of stones when the column is installed even in extremely soft soils, thus enabling quicker and more economical installation. This paper investigates the qualitative and quantitative improvement in load capacity of the stone column by encasement through a comprehensive parametric study using the finite element analysis. It is found from the analyses that the encased stone columns have much higher load carrying capacities and undergo lesser compressions and lesser lateral bulging as compared to conventional stone columns. The results have shown that the lateral confining stresses developed in the stone columns are higher with encasement. The encasement at the top portion of the stone column up to twice the diameter of the column is found to be adequate in improving its load carrying capacity. As the stiffness of the encasement increases, the lateral stresses transferred to the surrounding soil are found to decrease. This phenomenon makes the load capacity of encased columns less dependent on the strength of the surrounding soil as compared to the ordinary stone columns.     

公路软基蠕变—固结耦合有限元分析

软土的蠕变特性常常导致路堤出现沉降过大、甚至失稳等现象。本文采用同时考虑蠕变和固结效应的修正的广义Kelvin蠕变—固结模型,对公路软基的时效性变形进行了有限元分析。在某软基上路堤填筑工程的变形分析中,该方法的计算结果和监测数据基本吻合,由此验证了该模型的有效性。本文针对该工程进行了一系列的参数分析,讨论了软土的蠕变效应、塑料排水板布置方式和堆载速率等因素对该路堤变形发展和路堤稳定性的影响。     

Short-term and long-term behavior of geosynthetic-reinforced stone columns

Stone columns are often used to improve the load-carrying characteristics of weak soils. In very soft soils, however, the bearing capacity of stone columns may not significantly improve the load-carrying characteristics due to the very low confinement of the surrounding soil. In such cases, encased stone columns (ESCs) or horizontally reinforced stone columns (HRSCs) may be used. Although ESCs have been studied extensively, few studies have been done on HRSCs. In addition, very limited studies are available on ESCs and HRSCs under the same conditions. Moreover, no studies have been carried out to compare the long-term and short-term behavior of HRSCs with that of ESCs. In this research, therefore, numerical analyses are performed on various types of reinforced end-bearing stone columns to compare their behavior under both long-term and short-term conditions under various loading conditions. The Advanced Modified Cam-clay model for clay and the Hardening Soil model for stone column materials are used. The results show that with proper reinforcing stone columns, in addition to a considerable reduction in settlement, the consolidation time can be greatly decreased and most of the settlement will occur during the loading period. Also, the consolidation settlement rate may be increased by using a smaller column diameter and a larger area replacement ratio for the unit cell, stiffer geosynthetic reinforcements, and greater values for the internal friction angle of the stone column materials.     

Modelling of geosynthetic-reinforced column-supported embankments using 2D full-width model and modified unit cell approach

Soil-cement deep mixing (DM) columns combined with geosynthetic basal reinforcement are an accepted technique in geotechnical engineering to construct road and railway embankments over soft foundations. Both full-width and unit cell models have been used to numerically simulate the performance of geosynthetic-reinforced and column-supported (GRCS) embankments. However, the typical unit cell model with horizontally fixed side boundaries cannot simulate the lateral spreading of the embankment fill and foundation soil. As a result, the calculated reinforcement tensile loads using typical unit cell models are much less than those from matching full-width models. The paper first examines GRCS embankments using a full-width model with small- and large-strain modes in FLAC and then compares the calculated results from the full-width model with those using a typical unit cell model, a recently proposed modified unit cell model, and a closed-form solution. The paper also examines the influence of the soft foundation soil modulus, reinforcement tensile stiffness, and DM column modulus on the reinforcement tensile loads. Numerical analyses show that the reinforcement tensile loads from the modified unit cell model are in good agreement with those from the full-width model for zones under the embankment crest for all cases and conditions examined in the paper. Both the full-width model and modified unit cell model perform better than the typical unit cell model for the prediction of the reinforcement tensile load when compared to the closed-form solution. However, while the modified unit cell developed by the writers is shown to be more accurate than the typical unit cell when predictions are compared to results using full-width numerical simulations, the benefit of using this approach to reduce computation times may be limited in practice.     

基于蒙特卡罗法的加筋路堤稳定可靠性分析

软土路基上加筋路堤的稳定性可以采用圆弧滑动极限平衡法进行分析,加筋路堤的破坏可以归纳为圆弧内加筋的破坏、圆弧外加筋的破坏以及加筋路堤的整体破坏,建立了计算加筋路堤稳定系数K的3个不同的稳定系数表达式,运用蒙特卡罗法对设计参数随机变量与加筋土路堤稳定可靠指标的关系进行分析,通过数值计算发现密度越小,黏聚力、内摩擦角、筋材抗拉强度和筋土摩擦角越大,加筋土路堤稳定性越好,因此,在加筋土路堤可靠性设计中建议采用密度小、黏聚力和内摩擦角大的填料以及高强度筋材,并且重点考虑内摩擦角的变异水平。     

Numerical evaluation of a granular column reinforced by geosynthetics using encasement and laminated disks

Structures built on soft strata may experience substantial settlement, large lateral deformation of the soft layer and global or local instability. Granular columns reinforced by geosynthetic materials reduce settlement and increase the bearing capacity of the composite ground. Reinforcement is more common in the form of geosynthetic encasement, but laminated disks can also be used. This paper compares these two forms of reinforcement by means of unit cell finite element analyses. Numerical results were initially validated using field and experimental data, and parametric studies were subsequently performed. The parametric studies varied the geosynthetic interval and the geosynthetic tensile stiffness of the laminated disks as well as the length of the reinforced column. The analyses showed that in both modes; encasement and laminated disks; the geosynthetic increases the vertical stress mobilized on the reinforced column and reduces settlement on soft soil. It was also observed that in order to achieve the same performance as with encased column, the optimum interval between laminated disks is dependent on the stiffness of the geosynthetics and the column reinforced length.     

Large-scale load capacity tests on a geosynthetic encased column

Stone columns have been used to minimize the settlement of embankments on soft soils but their use in very soft soils can become challenging, partly because of the low confinement provided by the surrounding soil. Geosynthetic encased columns (GECs) have been successfully used to enhance to reduce settlements of embankments on soft soils. This paper describes an investigation on the performance of encased columns constructed on a very soft soil using different types of encasement (three woven geotextiles with different values of tensile stiffness) and different column fill materials (sand, gravel and recycled construction and demolition waste, RCDW). The results of load capacity tests conducted on large-scale models constructed to simulate the different types of GECs indicate that the displacement method adopted during column installation can lead to an enhanced shear strength in the smear zone that develops within the very soft soil. In addition, breakage of the column fill material was found to affect the load-settlement response of gravel and RCDW columns. Furthermore, the excess pore water pressure generated in the surrounding soil during installation, was found to remain limited to radial distances smaller than three times the GEC diameter.     

Numerical study of creep effects on settlements and load transfer mechanisms of soft soil improved by deep cement mixed soil columns under embankment load

Deep cement mixed (DCM) soil columns have been widely utilized to improve soft soil to support embankments or seawalls. However, the influence of the time-dependent behavior of the soft soil on the performance of DCM column-supported embankments is not well understood. In this study, the finite element (FE) model was established to investigate the creep effects on settlements and load transfer mechanisms of the soft soil improved by DCM columns under embankment load. Comparisons were conducted for the cases of the soft soil with or without creep. The parametric analysis demonstrated that the area replacement ratio and Young's modulus of the DCM column can largely influence the long-term behaviors of the DCM column-improved composite ground. The numerical results were also compared with the results calculated by German design method (EBGEO) and British design method (BS 8006). Regarding the vertical stress taken by the DCM column, EBGEO method provides a lower limit while BS 8006 method provides an upper limit.     

Shaking table tests on geosynthetic encased columns in soft clay

This paper presents the results of an experimental research on the behavior of geosynthetic encased stone columns and ordinary stone columns embedded in soft clay under dynamic base shaking. For this purpose, a novel laminar box is designed and developed to run a total of eight sets of 1-G shaking table tests on four different model soil profiles: Soft clay bed, ordinary stone column installed clay bed, and clay beds with geosynthetic encased columns with two different reinforcement stiffnesses. The geosynthetic encased columns are heavily instrumented with strain rosettes to quantify the reinforcement strains developing under the action of dynamic loads. The responses of the columns are studied through the deformation modes of the encased columns and the magnitude and distribution of reinforcement strains under dynamic loading. The response of the granular inclusion enhanced soft subsoil and embankment soil and the identification of the dynamic soil properties of the entire soil body are also discussed in this article. Finally, to determine the effect of dynamic loading on the vertical load carrying capacity, stress-controlled column load tests are undertaken both on seismically loaded and undisturbed columns.     

3-Dimensional numerical modeling of geosynthetic-encased granular columns

In this paper, series of three-dimensional (3-d) numerical modeling of geosynthetic-encased granular columns were performed both in model and prototype scale using FLAC^3D software to understand the lateral load carrying capacity of ordinary and geosynthetic encased granular columns (OGC and EGC). In the first part of the study, numerical modeling of direct shear tests were carried out. The soil in the direct shear box was reinforced with two different diameters of granular columns (50 mm and 100 mm) and three different patterns of arrangement (single, triangular and square) to study the effect of group confinement. The numerical simulations were carried out at four different confining pressures namely 15, 30, 45 and 75 kPa. From the numerical simulations it was observed that higher shear stresses are mobilized inside the granular column due to geosynthetic encasement and the magnitude of shear stress increases with increase in the normal pressure. It was found that the tensile forces in the geosynthetic encasement were mobilized both in circumferential and vertical directions, which helps in mobilizing additional confinement in the granular column. In the second part, the influence of the geosynthetic encasement of granular column treated soft ground was demonstrated through 3-dimensional slope stability analyses.     

水平向渗透系数变化条件下散体材料桩复合地基固结理论研究及分析

 建立考虑排水影响区土体水平向渗透系数因施工扰动影响而逐渐变化的散体材料桩复合地基的固结定解问题,并求出其一般解。基于实际工程中桩体施工对扰动区土体水平向渗透系数影响的复杂性,选择排水影响区土体水平向渗透系数沿径向分布的3种特殊情况,给出相应特解。根据解析解结果,通过编程计算,绘制出主要因素对复合地基固结过程的影响曲线图,分析排水影响区土体水平向渗透系数变化对散体材料桩复合地基固结性状的影响。研究结果表明：土体渗透性变化对复合地基固结影响显著,桩体施工对周围土体扰动越大,复合地基固结会越慢;考虑土体水平向渗透系数变化的散体材料桩复合地基固结理论较现有的复合地基固结理论更接近实际情况。     

饱和软黏土渗透特性及对一维大变形固结影响

 通过室内渗压试验对广州南沙饱和软黏土在不同固结压力和不同渗透压力下的渗透特性进行系统研究,分析影响土体渗透性的各种加卸荷条件;归纳渗透系数与固结压力、渗透系数与孔隙比的经验关系;揭示了软黏土的渗透规律和渗透破坏特征。在试验成果分析基础上,根据大变形固结理论中以位移为控制变量的物质描述方程,进一步研究初始渗透系数对大变形固结的影响以及在软土地基大变形固结计算中考虑压缩系数和渗透系数的非线性的必要性和合理性。