Aperture measurements and seepage properties of typical single natural fractures

Fractures play an important role in controlling the hydraulic conductivity of rock masses, and the aperture significantly influences the magnitude of fracture seepage. In this study, field measurements and experiments were conducted at a well-exposed granite fracture site in the Beishan area, China. Several types of single natural fractures were selected to remove the weathered surface and expose the fresh fractures. Subsequently, measuring ruler dispersion-tangent middle axis (MRD-TMA) method was developed to measure the fracture aperture and capture fracture geometry. Then, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) technique was employed to investigate the seepage properties of these fractures. The results reveal that MRD-TMA method achieved good flexibility and accuracy in the current measurement of fracture aperture, and ERT is a useful tool for detecting the seepage properties of fractures in hard rock masses. Combined with field observations, the filling form of fractures can be categorized according to the ERT inversion results, as follows: open-weak filling, open filling, loose filling, and fully cemented-closed form, whose seepage properties decrease as the filling density increases. Generally, the open-weak filling is the main water channel in a fracture network, while the fully cemented-closed type is a water-blocking fracture and typically exhibits a pseudo-fracture with a large surface opening. In summary, the method for obtaining the morphological characteristics of the aperture can provide a low-cost and time-efficient approach for fracture logging in the field, and ERT technique provides a reference for the detection of potential hazards caused by connected water-conducting fractures in rock engineering.

     

Numerical simulation of shear-induced flow anisotropy and scale-dependent aperture and transmissivity evolution of rock fracture replicas

Fluid flow anisotropy in a single rock fracture during a shear process is an important issue in rock mechanics and is investigated in this paper using FEM modelling, considering evolutions of aperture and transmissivity with shear displacement history. The distributions of fracture aperture during shearing with large shear displacements were obtained by numerically manipulating relative translational movements between two digitalized surfaces of a rock fracture replica, with changing sample sizes. The scale dependence of the fluid behaviour and properties were also investigated using a fractal approach.The results show that the fracture aperture increases anisotropically during shear with a more pronounced increase in the direction perpendicular to the shear displacement, causing significant fluid flow channelling effect, as also observed by other researchers. This finding may have important impacts on the interpretation of the results of coupled hydro-mechanical experiments for measurements of hydraulic properties of rock fractures because the hydraulic properties are usually calculated from flow test results along the shear directions while ignoring the more significant anisotropic flow perpendicular to the shear direction. This finding indicates that the coupled stress-flow tests of rough rock fractures should be conducted in true three-dimensions if possible. Significant change in fracture aperture/transmissivity in the out-of-plane direction should be properly evaluated if two-dimensional tests are conducted. Results obtained from numerical simulations also show that fluid flow through a single rough fracture changes with increasing sample size and shear displacements, indicating that representative hydro-mechanical properties of the fractures in the field can only be more reliably determined using samples of large enough sizes beyond the stationarity threshold and tested with larger shear displacements.     

Hydraulic properties of fractured rock masses with correlated fracture length and aperture

Permeability of fractured rocks is investigated considering the correlation between distributed fracture aperture and trace length, based on a newly developed correlation equation. The influence of the second moment of the lognormal distribution of apertures on the existence of representative elementary volume (REV), and the possibility of equivalent permeability tensor of the fractured rock mass, is examined by simulating flow through a large number of stochastic discrete fracture network (DFN) models of varying sizes and varying fracture properties.The REV size of the DFN models increases with the increase of the second moment of the lognormal distribution, for both the correlated and uncorrelated cases. The variation of overall permeability between different stochastic realizations is an order of magnitude larger when the aperture and length are correlated than when they are uncorrelated. The mean square error of the directional permeability increases with increasing value of the second moment of the lognormal distribution function, and good fitting to an ellipsis of permeability tensor can only be reached with very large sizes of DFN models, compared with the case of constant fracture aperture, regardless of fracture trace length.     

Relating the hydraulic properties of a fractured rock mass to seismic attributes: Theory and numerical experiments

Numerical experiments are conducted to establish how the properties of a seismic signal are related to the hydraulic properties of a fractured rock mass. A hybridized reflectivity method is developed and used to compute a 1D synthetic seismogram for a geologic section which consists of a series of layers with one of the layers consisting of fractures. Seismic attributes, notably instantaneous amplitude, frequency and bandwidth are computed for a reflected seismic energy from a fractured zone with known distribution of fracture parameters: fracture length, aperture and spacing. The permeability of the fractured zone is computed using a discrete fracture model. The synthetic seismogram is computed using the Modified Displacement Discontinuity Model (MDD), which accounts for fracture opening and finite lengths of fractures. A significant correlation is established between the seismic attributes and fractured rock mass permeability. All the seismic attributes tend to increase with increase in permeability. The correlation is significant enough to establish a meaningful empirical relation between seismic attributes and fracture permeability.     

Influence of fracture roughness on shear strength,slip stability and permeability:A mechanistic analysis by three-dimensional digital rock modeling

Subsurface fluid injections can disturb the effective stress regime by elevating pore pressure and potentially reactivate faults and fractures.Laboratory studies indicate that fracture rheology and permeability in such reactivation events are linked to the roughness of the fracture surfaces.In this study,we construct numerical models using discrete element method(DEM) to explore the influence of fracture surface roughness on the shear strength,slip stability,and permeability evolution during such slip events.For each simulation,a pair of analog rock coupons(three-dimensional bonded quartz particle analogs) representing a mated fracture is sheared under a velocity-stepping scheme.The roughness of the fracture is defined in te rms of asperity height and asperity wavele ngth.Results show that(1) Samples with larger asperity heights(rougher),when sheared,exhibit a higher peak strength which quickly devolves to a residual strength after reaching a threshold shear displacement;(2) These rougher samples also exhibit greater slip stability due to a high degree of asperity wear and resultant production of wear products;(3) Long-term suppression of permeability is observed with rougher fractures,possibly due to the removal of asperities and redistribution of wear products,which locally reduces porosity in the dilating fracture;and(4) Increasing shear-parallel asperity wavelength reduces magnitudes of stress drops after peak strength and enhances fracture permeability,while increasing shear-perpendicular asperity wavelength results in sequential stress drops and a delay in permeability enhancement.This study provides insights into understanding of the mechanisms of frictional and rheological evolution of rough fractures anticipated during reactivation events.     

Experimental study of the hydro-mechanical behavior of rock joints using a parallel-plate model containing contact areas and artificial fractures

In recent years, geological disposal of radioactive wastes is considered to be the most promising option, which requires the understanding of the coupled mechanical, hydraulic and thermal properties of the host rock masses and rock fractures. The hydro-mechanical behavior and properties of rock fractures are usually determined by laboratory experiments on fracture specimens that serve as the basic building block of the constitutive models of fractured rock masses.Laboratory testing of rock fractures involve a number of technical issues that may have significant impacts on the reliability and applicability of the testing results, chief among them are the quantitative estimation of the evolutions of hydraulic transmissivity fields of fractures during shear under different normal constraint conditions, and the sealing techniques when fluid flow during shear is involved. In this study, a new shear-flow testing apparatus with specially designed fluid sealing techniques for rock fractures were developed, under constant normal load (CNL) or constant normal stiffness (CNS) constraint. The topographical data of all fracture specimens were measured before testing to constitute the geometrical models for simulating the change of mechanical aperture distributions during shearing. A number of shear-flow coupling tests were carried out on three kinds of rock fracture specimens to evaluate the influence of morphological properties of rock fractures on their hydro-mechanical behaviour. Some empirical relations were proposed to evaluate the effects of contact area and surface roughness on the behavior of fluid flow through rock fractures.     

单轴压缩条件下砂岩破坏全过程电阻率与声发射响应特征及损伤演化

 为了全面、客观地描述单轴压缩条件下砂岩损伤破坏过程和状态,提出利用电阻率和声发射技术对砂岩岩样单轴压缩全过程进行联合测试的试验方法。针对30个砂岩岩样单轴压缩全过程中的电阻率和声发射响应特征进行试验研究。研究表明,电阻率和声发射的响应信息有很强的规律性和互补性：在压密阶段、弹性变形阶段和塑性变形阶段,电阻率信息对岩样内部裂隙萌生和发展活动的响应更为敏感,而声发射信号较微弱;岩样破裂瞬间,电阻率和声发射都突然升高,二者相比,声发射的同步性更好,敏感程度更高;岩样破坏完成后,电阻率仍有不同程度的变化,最终趋于稳定,而声发射又恢复到较低的水平。同时,推导基于电阻率表征的岩样损伤变量的解析表达,并根据其与声发射表征的损伤变量之间的互补性,定义一综合损伤变量,得到典型岩样的损伤演化方程,提出岩样损伤破坏状态的判别标准和破坏前兆特征。通过理论与实际试验全应力–应变曲线的对比发现,综合损伤变量能够更全面、客观地反映和描述受载岩样的损伤演化过程。     

大连地下石油储备库初始渗流场数值反演

 初始渗流场分析是水封式地下石油储备库设计中的重要内容和先决条件,现场压水试验只能提供较准确的各向同性渗透系数,而不能反映各向异性的渗透特征。结合大连地下石油储备库工程,提出一种基于随机节理网络模拟技术反演岩体各向异性渗透特征的方法。首先,采用三维离散元程序3DEC内置的Fish语言,直接生成不同尺寸的三维节理网络模型,通过推导的判别式来统计模型中各组节理的个数及产状信息。其次,利用裂隙介质的渗透张量理论计算不同尺寸的岩体渗透张量,进而确定节理岩体的表征体元(REV)。根据现场压水试验实测资料,修正节理岩体的渗透张量,再利用Matlab软件计算渗透主值及渗透特征向量。最后,考虑渗透系数的空间正交各向异性,采用FLAC3D的Fl_anisotropic的渗流模型反演库区的初始渗流场,为水封式地下石油储备库水幕设计及稳定性分析提供较合理的初始渗流场条件。     

Fracture permeability normal to bedding in layered rock masses

A two-dimensional model of fracture permeability normal to bedding in layered rock with orthogonal, bed-delimited fractures is investigated. Steady-state, saturated laminar flow is assumed. Permeability is assumed to be a function of apertures and flow path lengths in an otherwise impermeable matrix. Bedding planes or other separations between layers are modeled as fictitious interlayers to render a layered fractured rock mass equivalent to a layered porous medium. Layer, or bed-normal permeability is quantified in terms of readily available field data, using a probability model to represent fracture connectivity between layers. The bed-normal permeability is shown to depend on fracture spacing and aperture, layer spacing and bedding plane aperture, and to be scale-dependent. Numerical investigation and comparison with field data indicates that the derived expression is useful for estimating layer-normal permeability.     

含裂隙岩石渗流力学特性研究

岩体中裂隙的存在严重影响着岩体的渗流特性。为了解不同载荷作用对含裂隙岩体渗流性能的影响规律,利用高精度渗流应力耦合三轴试验系统,对含裂隙砂岩和粉砂岩加载及卸载作用下的渗流特性进行试验研究。试验结果表明:(1)加载试验过程中,随着载荷的增大,试样裂隙隙宽逐渐减小,渗透率随之逐渐减小,渗透率与有效围压呈负指数关系;(2)卸载过程中,随着载荷的减小,岩石渗透率逐渐回升,但回升路径明显低于原始路径,路径不重合表明试样中裂隙的变形具有塑性变形的特征。根据试验结果,建立渗透率与有效围压的关系式,并确定关系式中的待定参数。在试验及理论研究的基础上,通过数值模拟分析试样裂隙面渗透率及渗流速度的变化规律。     

Nonlinear model characterizing stress-strain relationship and permeability change of contact compression fracture at closing stage

Understanding the stress-strain relationship and permeability change for contact compression fracture at closing stage has been a hot issue for a long time.Previous investigations of this topic were mainly focused on experimental tests;however,theoretical approaches were rarely reported.Based on this,this paper focuses on the contact fracture at closing stage when rock is uniaxially loaded,and then a theoretical model is proposed.Based on the change of fracture elasticity modulus,it shows that as crack apertures are gradually reduced in the loading process,the permeability of rock sample will decrease progressively.This scenario shows that theoretical computation matches well with the experimental results.Finally,the effects of ratio of sample size to fracture aperture(n).pore pressure(P),and initial aperture(b) on stress-strain relationship and permeability change for contact compression fracture at closing stage are analyzed.     

Nonlinear fluid flow through three-dimensional rough fracture networks:Insights from 3D-printing,CT-scanning,and high-resolution numerical simulations

Nonlinear flow behavior of fluids through three-dimensional(3 D) discrete fracture networks(DFNs)considering effects of fracture number, surface roughness and fracture aperture was experimentally and numerically investigated. Three physical models of DFNs were 3 D-printed and then computed tomography(CT)-scanned to obtain the specific geometry of fractures. The validity of numerically simulating the fluid flow through DFNs was verified via comparison with flow tests on the 3 D-printed models. A parametric study was then implemented to establish quantitative relations between the coefficients/parameters in Forchheimer's law and geometrical parameters. The results showed that the 3 D-printing technique can well reproduce the geometry of single fractures with less precision when preparing complex fracture networks, numerical modeling precision of which can be improved via CT-scanning as evidenced by the well fitted results between fluid flow tests and numerical simulations using CT-scanned digital models. Streamlines in DFNs become increasingly tortuous as the fracture number and roughness increase, resulting in stronger inertial effects and greater curvatures of hydraulic pressure-low rate relations, which can be well characterized by the Forchheimer's law. The critical hydraulic gradient for the onset of nonlinear flow decreases with the increasing aperture, fracture number and roughness,following a power function. The increases in fracture aperture and number provide more paths for fluid flow, increasing both the viscous and inertial permeabilities. The value of the inertial permeability is approximately four orders of magnitude greater than the viscous permeability, following a power function with an exponent a of 3, and a proportional coefficient β mathematically correlated with the geometrical parameters.     

钻孔岩体裂隙几何参数确定方法研究及其应用

 裂隙岩体渗透性是高放废物处置库场址选择和评价的重要考虑因素。钻孔岩体渗透性特征主要依靠钻孔电视获得的裂隙几何参数来确定。针对传统统计法确定裂隙几何参数存在的不足和误差,提出了新的统计方法和计算公式。研究认为：(1) 由于岩体裂隙空间分布多变性,提出了以裂隙密度和产状为基础的岩体均质区划分方法;(2) 钻孔岩体裂隙发育优势产状采用聚类分析方法来统计;(3) 裂隙间距的确定考虑了测量误差的影响并提出了修正公式;(4) 裂隙有效水力隙宽提出按照力学成因来确定。将获得的裂隙几何参数代入渗透张量计算程序中,得到钻孔岩体的渗透张量以及渗透主值和主渗透方向,从而为钻孔岩体渗透性分析提供依据。     

两淮煤系地层主要岩石单轴受压条件下的导电特性试验研究

设计一种岩石受荷条件下的岩石电阻率试验装置。通过试验,发现一种取材方便、效果良好的电极耦合材料——过饱和黏土。试验研究两淮煤系地层主要岩石的导电性随电流、电压、应力的变化特性,并拟合出各岩样较高相关度的电阻率-应力(ρ-σ)回归方程,结果发现:(1)两淮煤田煤系地层岩石在弹性变形范围内,其导电性随着应力的增大而增强(即岩石的电阻率随着应力的增大而降低);(2)软弱砂质泥岩导电性受应力影响的程度大于坚硬的砂岩、闪长岩;(3)岩石电阻率与应力之间存在较好的相关性;(4)在应力一定的条件下,软弱砂质泥岩的导电性随着电压、电流的增强而增强(电阻率降低),坚硬砂岩、闪长岩的导电性基本不受电压、电流的影响。在两淮煤田深井巷道围岩松动圈的高密度电阻率法探测中,将测试得到的巷道围岩视电阻率断面图或电阻率反演断面图与岩石电阻率试验获得的ρ-σ回归方程相结合,分析巷道围岩松动圈的发育状况,取得较好的工程效果。     

Estimation of fracture flow considering the inhomogeneous structure of single rock fractures

Considering the safe, long-term isolation of energy byproducts, such as radioactive waste, one of the important parameters is the velocity of the groundwater flow through the void of rock masses and/or fractures. Although it is generally known that a natural rock fracture indicates a complex aperture distribution, the fracture is often ideally represented by a parallel plate model. The cubic law is applied to evaluate the hydraulic properties of fractured rock. From several previous research works, it is understood that the cubic law can be applied when the Reynolds number is less than 1.0 and that the inertia term can basically be ignored in such slow fracture flows. In this research work, two-dimensional seepage flow analyses, using the authors' proposed 2D model, in which the inertia term, the pressure term and the diffusion term are incorporated, are carried out for single fracture permeability tests under conditions which allow for the application of the cubic law. In comparing the results of the experiments with the results of the numerical simulation, the results of the simulation employing the 2D model show a good agreement with the experimental results; the 2D model can simulate the water flow in an inhomogeneous fracture more accurately than the simulation based on the local cubic law. From these simulation results, the fracture flow in an inhomogeneous structure is discussed, along with the local Reynolds number, and the resistance through the fracture geometry is considered. Consequently, under the condition of a mean Reynolds number of less than 1.0, the inertia terms do not affect the fracture flow, but the hydraulic resistance does affect the fracture flow.     

地下岩体温度变化影响区域探测方法的实验研究

在室内对沉积岩的砂岩和泥岩进行了多组岩样加热实验,给出了室内实验泥岩和砂岩温度上升与电阻率变化关系的回归方程。在东京郊区某野外地下实验场内进行了泥岩岩体的原位加热实验,使用特制的物探设备取得了温度变化各个阶段对应的岩体电阻率数据,通过处理解析取得的数据,了解了温度上升时原位岩体电阻率变化的实际情况。室内岩样实验与室外原位岩体实验研究结果表明:通过使用电法物探设备监测岩体的电阻率变化情况,可以及时了解地下高温源对围岩体的温度影响场范围。该实验研究为目前核废料储存及处理时,探测围岩体受高温影响的范围提供了一种可视化的监测方法,并研究了该方法在野外原位使用的可行性。     

岩石剪切裂隙渗流特性试验与理论研究

 通过在三轴应力条件下对丹江口库区辉绿岩进行剪切破坏得到剪切裂隙,然后对剪切裂隙进行不同围压和裂隙水压力(渗透压差)作用下渗透性能的试验研究。研究结果表明：绝大部分岩样在剪切破坏后会形成单条贯穿剪切裂隙,这种剪切裂隙的渗透系数与净围压的关系符合指数函数特征,且受环向应变影响很大,但受轴向应变影响较小;裂隙水压力对裂隙渗透系数影响明显,在相同净围压下,裂隙水压力越大,渗透系数越大,其主要原因是较大的裂隙水压力使裂隙两侧基岩产生附加变形,导致隙宽增加。基于试验数据和理论分析,根据三维应力下的裂隙–岩块位移模型推导考虑裂隙水压力的渗透系数计算公式,该公式可以较好地描述不同围压和裂隙水压力下实测渗透系数的变化趋势,并且公式中的参数均可根据简单的三轴压缩试验得到,计算结果与实测数据符合较好。     

低孔低渗砂岩加载条件下的声波传播特性 实验研究

 以低孔低渗砂岩在不同围压条件下的岩石力学测试实验及力学实验过程中岩石纵、横波时差和波形等的采集实验为基础,研究低孔低渗砂岩在三轴和单轴加载过程中声波波速、幅度、频谱特性的变化特征。研究发现：(1) 低孔低渗砂岩的声波纵、横波速及频谱特性随岩石变形和破坏的阶段变化而变化。在岩石中裂隙、孔洞压密阶段,纵、横波波速都快速上升;纵、横波速达到峰值时的轴向应力与岩石抗压强度的比值随孔隙度与渗透率乘积的增大而减小。(2) 声波纵、横波波形的变化与岩石的变形紧密相关。随着轴向载荷增大,岩石内部裂纹的产生和扩展,当岩石轴向应力为极限强度的60%左右时,横波波形末端出现明显的散射波信号。(3) 随着轴向载荷增大,岩石被压实,频谱曲线上的振幅呈增大趋势;随着岩石轴向载荷进一步增加,裂纹产生,频谱曲线上低频端较高频端活跃。(4) 岩石达到峰值强度前阶段,纵波首波振幅和频谱主振幅都表现出上升趋势,且弹性压缩阶段,首波振幅和频谱主振幅上升速率较快,裂纹不稳定扩展阶段,主振幅表现出比首波振幅低的上升趋势。低孔低渗砂岩加载过程中表现出来的声波传播特性的变化特征,对其内部裂缝动态变化的预测和稳定性评价都具有重要的指导意义。     

Estimating the relation between surface roughness and mechanical properties of rock joints

Discontinuities in rock masses have an important influence on deformational behaviour of blocky rock systems. For a single rock joint, the roughness of its surface is of paramount importance to its mechanical and hydraulic properties, such as friction angle, shear strength, and dilatancy/aperture. Many methods have been used to characterize the surface roughness of rock joints, such as joint roughness coefficients (JRC), root mean square (RMS) value, structure function (SF) etc. However, most of these methods can only be used in the 2-D models. In this study, we carried out direct shear experiments on rock joints under both constant normal load (CNL) and constant normal stiffness (CNS) conditions, and measured the surfaces of rock joints before and after shearing, using a 3-D laser scanning profilometer system. By using a 3-D fractal evaluation method of roughness characterization, the projective covering method (PCM) and a direct shear apparatus of high accuracy, the relation between mechanical properties of rock joints under different boundary conditions and the change of their fractal dimensions in both 2-D and 3-D models have been examined, which gives a new approach to accurately evaluate the evolution of roughness of rock joint surfaces and its influence on the hydro-mechanical behaviours of rock joints.