Liquefaction response of loose gassy marine sand sediments under cyclic loading

Gassy sediments have often been encountered in the marine seabed, and they have different features from common saturated and unsaturated soil. By developing and improving an effective methodology, triaxial gassy sand specimens with different initial gas content (saturation ≥85%) were prepared in the laboratory. Their state parameters can be controlled in real time. A series of undrained dynamic triaxial tests by a Global Digital System (GDS) dynamic testing apparatus were conducted to investigate the liquefaction characteristics of gassy sand sediments. The results show that the gassy sand can liquefy the same as the fully saturated sand, but gas existence monotonically increases the sand liquefaction resistance. The occluded gas bubbles have significant influences on sand liquefaction properties. The dynamic pore pressure of gassy sand shows obvious features of slower accumulation, greater amplitude fluctuation, and deeper groove shape in time history curves of pore water, resulting from the effects of gas compression/expansion, migration, and dissolution/exsolution. By introducing a parameter of saturation, a modified model was proposed to describe the evolution of dynamic pore pressure of gassy sands. It was found that the model parameter θ is linearly dependent on the initial gas content (or initial saturation degree S_r).     

一种新型非饱和土温控三轴试验系统的研制与初步应用

为研究温度对非饱和土水力、力学和声学性质的影响,自主研发一套带有弯曲元和精密体变量测的温控式三轴仪。本设备通过在GDS应力路径非饱和土三轴试验系统中增设温控内压力室的方式,实现了对温度变化的精确控制及量测;通过将压差传感器与温控内压力室相结合,实现了温度变化情况下试样体变的精确量测;同时增设了一套弯曲元测试系统,增加了仪器的功能,实现了温度变化情况下对试样实时波速的测试。通过对杭州湾粉细砂土开展4个温度水平的三轴剪切试验以及同一温度水平下的波速测试,结果表明:新仪器能够稳定的控制温度变化条件、精确测量温度变化条件下试样的体变以及测量温度变化条件下试样的实时波速,初步检验了仪器性能的可靠性。该设备整体结构简单,拆装方便,可实现常规非饱和(饱和)土试验与温控非饱和(饱和)土试验之间自由切换,互不干扰。设备研制的成功,将为非饱和(饱和)土的热-水-力-声耦合特性的研究提供方便有效的测试装置。     

Undrained creep behavior of CO2 hydrate-bearing sand and its constitutive modeling considering the cementing effect of hydrates

A technique for carbon dioxide (CO₂) capture and storage using CO₂ hydrates where CO₂ is stored as solid hydrates in the seabed ground, is attracting attention. Shallow sediments may be the most suitable seabed ground for CO₂ hydrate storage because these unconsolidated soil sediments satisfy the limitation for the low-temperature condition. Hence, the deformation properties and long-term stability of gas hydrate-bearing sediments during and after gas storage must be investigated. In this study, a series of undrained triaxial creep tests were conducted on artificially made CO₂ hydrate-bearing sand specimens to study the fundamental time dependent property of hydrate-bearing sediment. We extended an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model by introducing a cohesion component and its degradation on surfaces and applied the proposed model to creep tests on gas hydrate-bearing sand.Three findings were obtained from the experiments and modelling. First, CO₂ hydrate-bearing sand specimens showed accelerated creep behavior, which was characterized by the creep stress ratio level, regardless of the hydrate saturation. Second, creep accelerated under undrained conditions before the stress reached the critical state line obtained from the monotonic loading tests, and the stress ratio at the occurrence of acceleration creep was higher for specimens with a higher hydrate saturation. Third, the elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model which considered the cementing effect of hydrates was able to well reproduce the undrained creep behavior of hydrate-bearing sand with different hydrate saturations under relatively high creep stress levels.     

Estimating Volume Change of Triaxial Soil Specimens from Planar Images

A series of conventional triaxial experiments were conducted on sand specimens aboard the Space Shuttle during the NASA STS-79 mission. A 360° video coverage to monitor the specimen deformations was recorded during the experiments. Post-flight analyses included retrieving the video images for further analysis. Analysis tools were developed to correct distortion in specimen images due to using wide-angle lenses employing quadratic polynomial functions implemented in a computer code. Planar projections of specimen video images were used along with the x-ray computed tomography images to reconstruct three-dimensional (3D) renderings of triaxial sand specimens at different axial strain levels. Volumetric change of the specimens was accurately calculated and compared to measurements recorded during the Shuttle flight. 3D renderings that show the progress of specimen deformations were also developed and displayed. Such results are valuable for documenting true 3D recordings of soils instability phenomena tested using standard triaxial compression procedures and for applications related to educational demonstrations of conventional testing of soils.     

应用持水特征曲线预测浅层气藏压力

利用GDS三轴系统4D应力路径模块进行了不同围压下含浅层生物气非饱和砂土的持水特征试验。分析不同围压对持水特征曲线形态的影响。结果表明随着围压的施加与增大,非饱和砂土持水能力逐渐减弱。应用所得持水特征曲线进行含浅层气砂土中气藏压力状态的分析预测,结果表明使用无围压下持水特征曲线进行预测是偏于安全的。     

Image based local deformation measurement of saturated sand specimen in undrained cyclic triaxial tests

To evaluate the local deformation properties of sand specimen directly in the undrained triaxial test, a procedure based on Particle Image Velocimetry was developed through using a transparent membrane. Cylindrical specimens using a mixture of silica sand particles in black and white colors were prepared by the moist tamping method with five sand layers and the air pluviation method. Comparisons of local deformations between the direct evaluation by sand particles patterns and indirect evaluation by dots pasted on the membrane were made for a single specimen. The results obtained in the undrained cyclic triaxial tests revealed that the local deformation properties of medium dense and dense silica sand specimens evaluated by the indirect observation were consistent with those evaluated by the direct observation before the onset of initial liquefaction, except for some regions near the bottom ends of the specimen. Unlike the air pluviation method, the moist tamping method induced undesirable stratification within the specimen, and this resulted in the occurrence of specimen necking. Meanwhile, a non-uniform local strain distribution was observed along the specimen prepared by moist tamping method even under an axial strain less than 2%. The relative movement between the membrane and sand specimen, or slippage, occurred at the liquefied status. The extent of vertical slippage was also impacted by the relative density of the specimen.     

一室四腔刚-柔加载机构真三轴仪的改进与强度试验——西安理工大学真三轴仪

土的真三轴仪是研究不同应力路径等复杂应力条件下土力学性质的重要仪器。与国内外已有真三轴仪的加载机构比较,西安理工大学真三轴仪具有一室四腔、竖向和水平面内正交两向分别呈刚性和柔性加载机构的特征。试样的竖向采用刚性板加载,侧向正交双轴分别采用两组内置于压力腔的液压囊加载。针对试样上下端部刚性板的约束作用,增大了试样的竖向尺寸,研制了高宽比为2∶1的压力室;针对立方体试样侧面正交双轴的液压囊体积变化量测侧向变形的不足,研制了穿越液压囊的变形量测机构;针对自动控制系统信号波动变化较大,稳定性差等不足,开发了自动控制系统及多种应力路径和控制方式的控制程序。通过饱和砂土、非饱和土和原状黄土的试验,测试了各种土的强度变化规律,验证了改进真三轴仪的性能。     

Triaxial apparatus equipped with elastic waves and matric suction measurement techniques

A recently developed technique for elastic wave measurement, a disk transducer method, and a pressure membrane technique for suction measurement were merged into a modified triaxial testing apparatus enabling the procurement of both the elastic waves and the matric suction of a cylindrical specimen. The apparatus was employed to evaluate the variation in suction in sandy soil possessing a low range of suction (less than 100?kPa). Fine sand with two types of fines, namely, non-plastic silt and kaolin clay, was mixed with Toyoura sand in order to prepare sandy soil specimens. Both compressional and shear wave velocities were evaluated in conjunction with the associated matric suction. The matric suction was varied by injecting water into the specimens, and the relevant elastic wave velocities were obtained by a disk transducer. This research has corroborated the applicability of the disk transducer method to unsaturated soil specimens as well as the effects of matric suction on the mechanical behaviour of sandy soils possessing a low range of suction.     

Air,Water and Vacuum Pluviation of Sand Specimens for the Triaxial Apparatus

A device is presented for reconstituting sand specimens directly onto the triaxial apparatus by pluviation in air, water or under vacuum. The sand is delivered by means of an uniform rain covering the whole specimen cross section and target density is achieved by changing fall height and depositional intensity. The apparatus was calibrated using Ticino River sand, for which water and vacuum pluviations provided the lowest and highest densities, respectively. Whilst the density of loose samples was similar to that obtained using Kolbuszewski (1948) and ASTM minimum density methods, much denser specimens were obtained with vacuum pluviations as compared to vibration compaction methods (similar to ASTM maximum density method). The resulting maximum relative density, referred to the limits from standard tests, was as high as 140%. Water pluviation density is independent of both depositional intensity and fall height. For other target density best results in terms of sample uniformity are achieved by vacuum pluviation with an appropriate selection of depositional intensity and fall height. This also provides an extremely high reproducibility of target density.     

Rate effect on the stress-strain relations of synthetic carbon dioxide hydrate-bearing sand and dissociation tests by thermal stimulation

Methane hydrates (MHs) have been recognized as an important material for use as a new energy resource. Recently, not only MHs, but also carbon dioxide hydrates (CO₂-hydrates), have been attracting attention from the viewpoint of CO₂ storage in the form of CO₂-hydrates. It is essential, therefore, to investigate the mechanical behaviour of gas hydrate-bearing sediments in order to achieve safe MH extraction and to ensure the long-term stability of CO₂-hydrate-storaged submarine sediments. In order to gain further knowledge of CO₂-hydrate-bearing sediments, we carried out three kinds of laboratory experiments on synthetic CO₂-hydrate-bearing sand specimens: (1) undrained triaxial compression tests with a constant strain rate, (2) undrained triaxial compression tests with a step-changed strain rate, and (3) dissociation tests on CO₂-hydrate-bearing sand specimens using the thermal stimulation method.The main findings obtained from these three experiments are as follows: First, it was found that CO₂-hydrate-bearing sand shows larger strength and larger positive dilatancy than water-saturated sand without CO₂-hydrates under undrained conditions. Second, CO₂-hydrate-bearing sand clearly exhibits strain rate dependency with an increase in hydrate saturation. It is interesting to note that hydrate saturation’s dependency on strength does not appear in cases where the strain rate is quite slow. Third, a drastic increase in pore pressure and extensive tensile strain are observed simultaneously during the dissociation of CO₂-hydrates. The pore gas pressure of CO₂, produced by the hydrate dissociation, can exceed the liquefied boundary of CO₂-gas, and the increase in pore gas pressure can be limited by the liquefaction of CO₂-gas.     

两种含瓦斯煤样变形特性与抗压强度的实验分析

 介绍型煤煤样和原煤煤样的制作过程,设计含瓦斯煤样的三轴实验方法和步骤。利用自行研制的三轴蠕变瓦斯渗流装置和材料实验机组成含瓦斯煤样三轴压缩实验装置,对型煤煤样和原煤煤样进行含瓦斯三轴实验,获得大量不同围压和不同瓦斯压力条件下的实验数据;根据实验结果系统地研究含瓦斯煤样两种煤样在三轴应力条件下的变形特性和抗压强度。研究结果表明,围压和瓦斯压力对含瓦斯煤样的变形特性和抗压强度都有一定程度的影响;型煤煤样和原煤煤样的变形特性和抗压强度具有规律上的共性,但是其力学参数存在显著差异;弹性模量和泊松比在含瓦斯煤样的变形过程中不是定值,而是动态变化的,且2种煤样的弹性模量差别很大,泊松比也不相等;相同载荷条件下型煤煤样的变形比原煤煤样的要大得多,其形状改变也比原煤煤样的大。研究结果对进一步认识含瓦斯煤样的力学性质具有一定的意义。     

Modeling the static liquefaction of unsaturated sand containing gas bubbles

As a modification of the deviatoric hardening plasticity model, a material state-dependent model was proposed to simulate the response of unsaturated sand containing gas bubbles under undrained triaxial conditions. Affected by the compressibility of gas, the stress paths under undrained conditions approach the drained response of sand when the initial degree of saturation is low. Upon an increase in the degree of saturation, the stress path gradually approaches the saturated undrained response. According to the prediction based on the second-order work criterion, static liquefaction occurs in loose sand, but not in dense sand. Increases in the degree of saturation and the initial gas pressure reduce the stress ratio at the instability points. The instability line obtained by connecting those instability points in the p-q space is nonlinear, and its slope depends on the initial void ratio, the initial degree of saturation, the initial gas pressure, and the confining stress. After comparing the experimental results in the literature with the theoretical prediction, the proposed model was shown to precisely predict the onset of the static liquefaction of unsaturated sand containing gas bubbles.     

海床砂土应力分析及动态强度特性

探讨了海床土壤与陆上土壤应力状态的差异,在三轴试验中利用反水压力作为静水压力以模拟原海床水深,回复海床土壤在原海域环境中的应力状态,并探讨水深对海床砂土动态强度的影响。另外,探讨了海床砂土受到长、短波浪周期作用时,其动态强度特性。研究结果显示,水深越大,海床砂土的液化阻抗强度越低;海床土壤在长周期的波浪作用下,有较高的液化阻抗强度,同时引起海床砂土液化有一最低的门坎值。     

水力加砂压裂试验装置的研制及应用

为研究非常规天然气开采过程中支撑剂的运移规律,自主研发水力加砂压裂试验装置。该装置主要由岩石三轴试验机、压裂液泵压伺服控制系统、声发射监测系统3个部分组成,且具有以下特点:1可以模拟不同地应力、不同排量条件下携砂压裂试验;2压裂液注入可以通过流量模式和压力模式控制;3改进的声发射探头具有耐高油压性能,能够用于三轴室内。采用该装置进行了不同地应力、不同排量以及携砂条件下水力压裂试验,结果显示:地压力越大、排量越大红色砂岩起裂压力越大;携砂压裂后的压裂面离裸眼越远,支撑剂浓度越低且支撑剂并不是遍布所有压裂面;声发射累计计数在初期比较稳定,呈线性增加,在起裂前迅速增多。     

Effect of Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient on Pressure Controlled Compaction Grouting in Triaxial Condition

The design, fabrication, and assembly of a new laboratory apparatus for the investigation of the behavior of compaction grouting in triaxial condition are presented in this paper. Using this laboratory apparatus, pressure-controlled compaction grouting tests were carried out in specimens of completely decomposed granite (CDG) in Hong Kong. Precisely controlled injection water into a specially designed latex balloon in the specimen was to simulate a compaction grouting process. In these tests, the effective confining pressure, lateral earth pressure coefficient (K), excess pore water pressure, back pressure, void ratio change, and vertical deformation of the specimen were measured. The main focus was to investigate the development of injection pressure, void ratio, and excess pore water pressure due to compaction grouting and subsequent consolidation of soils. In addition, both the compaction efficiency and the average strength enhancement ratio are defined to evaluate the effect of compaction grouting.     

BASIC RESEARCH ON THE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF METHANE HYDRATE-SEDIMENTS MIXTURE

The possible existence of a vast amount of methane hydrate around islands has attracted attention as the largest potential hydrocarbon resource in Japan. At the same time, several production methods have been considered to extract the gas from the hydrate zone. Although it is known that the hydrates pose significant obstacles to drilling and production operations, there is at present only limited knowledge on the mechanical behavior of hydrate-rich zones, which is necessary to understand the stability around the site. In order to know the properties of methane hydrate and/or its sand mixtures, a series of tests was carried out on artificial methane hydrate-sand mixtures, using low temperature and a newly developed high confining pressure triaxial compression technique. The sediments used in the mixture were obtained from a 207.75m sea bottom core from the Nankai Trough, located 1152.75m below sea level. The specimens used were prepared by compressing a mixture of artificial methane hydrate and the sediments with a volume ratio of sediments to the whole of specimen. On the basis of these experimental results, the factors affecting mechanical properties of the hydrate and sediment mixtures are discussed. It is very essential to collect more data on the properties of methane hydrate and/or sedimentation (soil) mixture to understand the stability of any attempt at methane hydrate production.     

A thermodynamic model to simulate the thermo-mechanical behavior of fine-grained gassy soil

Fine-grained gassy soil is a special kind of unsaturated soil, with the gas in the form of discrete big bubbles within the saturated matrix. These gas bubbles are sealed and considerably larger than the normal particle size. Based on the conceptual model of soil containing large gas bubbles proposed by Wheeler (Géotechnique 38(3):389–397, 1988a) and the granular solid hydrodynamics (GSH) theory, a thermodynamic model is presented to describe the mechanical properties and temperature effect of fine-grained gassy soil in this paper. The model assumes that the gas pressure is related to total stress and pore water pressure of soil, and the behavior of saturated matrix is controlled by “quasi-effective stress.” In addition, the effect of gas on the plastic deformation of soil skeleton is considered. Comparing with the experimental results, the ability of the model to describe the consolidation and undrained shear properties of fine-grained gassy soil is verified. What is more, the effect of temperature on fine-grained gassy soil considering the various responses for different drainage conditions and overconsolidation ratios is discussed and simulated by the proposed model. It is concluded that for fine-grained gassy soil with different overconsolidation ratios, the increase of temperature can increase the compressibility and thermal contraction under drained conditions, as well as the pore water pressure under undrained conditions, while the temperature effect on undrained shear properties depends on the initial conditions.

     

Effects of System Compliance on Liquefaction Behavior of Thin Sandy Layer in Undrained Cyclic Triaxial Tests

In a case history of dip slope failure caused by the 2004 Niigata-ken Chuetsu Earthquake, it has been reported that the slope contained a thin sandy soil layer. The layer may have liquefied if it had been saturated at the time of the earthquake. Undrained cyclic triaxial tests comprise one of the available experimental approaches for evaluating the liquefaction behavior of such thin sandy soil layers. In this study, a series of undrained cyclic triaxial tests was performed on specimens containing an artificial sand layer in order to investigate the effects of system compliance that are possibly induced by partial drainage caused by the changes in volume of the filter paper used to saturate the sand layer and the local drainage at the interface among the specimen, the top cap and pedestal, and the rubber membrane. The observed liquefaction behavior depended on the thickness of the sand layer under otherwise similar conditions, suggesting the significant effect of system compliance. By conducting special tests, while correcting the partial drainage, it was possible to reduce its effect on the liquefaction behavior. Cylindrical specimens with a top cap and pedestal, all having the same diameter, exhibited a smaller effect from partial drainage than prismatic specimens with an oversized top cap and pedestal.     

三轴试验土样径向变形的计算机图像测量

提出了一种三轴土样径向变形的计算机数字图像测量方法。将计算机图像识别技术应用于常规的土工三轴试验 ,实现三轴土样变形的直接测量和土样变形过程的摄像、自动测读和自动记录 ,不仅为土工三轴试验提供了一种直接、有效的测量手段 ,而且可以把常规三轴仪应用于非饱和土的变形测试。文中还分析了测量精度和测量误差产生的原因。给出了对于实际土样采用常规测量方法和数字图像测量方法测量结果的比较。     

控制试样初始剪切模量的动三轴液化试验

研制了压电陶瓷弯曲元-动三轴试验系统 ,解决了三轴仪内饱和试样的剪切波速测量问题 ,并阐述了其原理。在此基础上 ,通过先期振动控制重塑试样的初始剪切模量 ,并通过不排水应变控制循环三轴试验研究了钱塘江饱和粉土和粉砂的液化性质。