Energy analysis and options of Indian agriculture

Agriculture accounts for most of the energy consumed in India. Non-commercial sources may be insufficient for food production. Substitutes or alternatives have to be developed for some agricultural products. It is feasible to produce cheaper acceptable substitutes for sugar (from crop residues), milk (from corn), animal feeds (from waste recycling), etc. Physical inputs and outputs transformed to energy were used to evaluate energy utilization in agriculture. Major inputs were farmyard manure (FYM), irrigation, bullocks, and farm equipment. Inputs were computed from the stage of primary fuels. Tubewell irrigation consumed 9.4 GJ/ha and accounted for 6.8% of the energy output of sorghum fodder, 13.9% of berseem, 15.2% of wheat grain, 15.9% of sugar, and 37.0% of rice. Inputs were 249–324 MJ/cm-ha in different crops. Fully utilized, the minimum energy inputs through equipment for one hectare of wheat would be 9.2 GJ on bullock-operated farms and 5.9 GJ on tractor-operated farms. Actually, because of small farm sizes, use is 29.2 GJ on bullock-powered farms and 8.3 GJ on farms with tractors. Costs of wheat production are about 40% higher on bullock-operated farms. Pest and weed control account for less than 2% of the energy inputs of crops. Energy returns as grain are 99% for wheat, 76–90% for rice, 17–28% for corn, and 52% for planted sugar and 103% in ratooned sugar cane. An annual crop rotation of paddy and wheat in Haryana consumed less energy and yields more energy (edible and as biomass) than sugar cane.Rural fuel supplies being marginal, dung is preferentially used as fuel and hardly 10% of the recommended levels of FYM are applied. Energy utilization from dung as fuel is double that as fertilizer replacement. Biogas will not be the fuel of the poor and will force them to fell vegetation for cooking fuel. Solar cookers are promising alternatives. Considering the extensive needs for low (or no) cost cooking fuel, we conclude that the Indian energy economy (and agriculture) will improve by using more fertilizers (and less FYM) and farm machinery (with reduced dependence on bullocks). Farm residues and other biomass may be processed to augment supplies of domestic and industrial fuels.     

Energy conservation options for residential water heaters

Current designs of gas-fired and electric water heaters present a substantial opportunity for energy conservation through reductions in jacket losses, pilot losses and flue-gas losses. A systematic analysis and comparison of alternative energy-conserving designs has been carried out. Promising options for gas-fired water heaters include increased insulation, thermostat setback, forced-draft burners with intermittent ignition and flue closure, and instantaneous (low storage) designs. High efficiency electric water heaters incorporate increased insulation, thermostat setback, solar preheat, and heat pump operation. The evolution and market penetration of these alternative designs, some of which are commercially available at this writing, can reduce the energy usage for residential water heating in the U.S. by approx. 0.3 quads in the near-term, and up to 1.0 quads in the long-term as advanced designs achieve widespread saturation.     

Energy analysis of electricity supply and energy conservation options

A methodology is developed to compute the total energy requirements for electricity-generating systems using an input-output model that explicitly accounts for the physical flow of energy. The capital and operating requirements of 16 separate energy supply facilities are used to evaluate the total energy required by 9 alternative means of producing and delivering electricity. Evaluated electricity-generating systems rely on either fossil or nuclear energy as their fuel source. Energy payback periods are computed based on an equivalent electricity basis. These results are compared to a number of alternative capital investments to reduce energy demand. In general, the conservation options return their energy requirements sooner than the supply alternatives.     

Energy development in the Caribbean — options and necessities

The energy importing countries of the Caribbean have experienced substantial increases in the costs of the crude oil imports on which they largley depend. Their weak posiitons is mainly the result of a merge resource base But, argue Trevor Byer, Joerg-Uwe Richter and Joseph Vardi, Caribbean energy problems have been aggravted by inapproriate policies and institutional constraints. The most immediate way of improving the position is to concentrate on conservation and the substitution of indigenous fuels for imported energy, as far as is economically feasible. Approriate pricing policies and rational planning are essential if any lasting improvement is to be made. External assistance is also needed to develop the energy resource base, including hydrocarbons, and is available from bilateral and multilateral institutions.     

Energy demand and CO2 emissions reduction options in Nigeria

This paper presents policy options for reducing CO₂ emissions in Nigeria. The policies were formulated based on a thorough analysis of Nigeria's current energy consumption patterns and the projected evolution of key parameters that drive Nigeria's energy demand — primarily the rate of industrialization, the demand for transportation services, and the expansion of Nigeria's population. The study shows that the most promising options for reducing CO₂ emissions in Nigeria are improving energy efficiency and increasing the use of natural gas and renewable energy sources.     

Sulphur dioxide from electricity generation Policy options for pollution control

The authors examine the policy options which are available for the control of sulphur dioxide emissions from conventional thermal power stations. Knowledge of these options, their costs of implementation, their probable effectiveness, and the dates when they can be implemented, is necessary for the taking of rational decisions on, for example, the specification of optimal SO₂ emission standards. The emphasis is on the technical aspects of the alternative control technologies. The effects of SO₂ emissions on health and the environment are considered briefly and trends in SO₂ concentration levels and emissions are discussed. Policy options for the control of SO₂ emissions from conventional thermal power stations are then reviewed and assessed.     

Depletion of forest resources in Sudan: Intervention options for optimal control

Agricultural expansion and over-cutting of trees for fuelwood are important causes of deforestation in arid and semi-arid countries such as Sudan. The consequence is increased desertification and high erosion and loss of soil nutrients leading to declining agricultural productivity. However, the social costs of the deforestation externality are not taken into account in present forest management and land use planning in Sudan leading to under-pricing and over-exploitation of the country's forest resources. This study evaluated the suitability of approaches commonly used by most forest resource management agencies for prediction of the state and control of harvesting of forest resources against alternative empirical simulation models using relevant information about economic behaviour of trading agents in the fuelwood market. Results showed the clear superiority of models integrating market behaviour over current approaches in the ability to better simulate real trends of wood consumption and hence depletion rates. The study also adopted an optimal control model to derive socially optimal forest harvesting regimes. The results showed that current rates of forest resource rent recovery and reforestation efforts are very far from optimal. Results also suggest that, in addition to optimal pricing and higher reforestation efforts, promotion and availability of fuel substitutes and investment in wood energy conversion efficiencies have a strong potential for curbing the problem of deforestation in Sudan.     

The UK surface passenger transport sector : Energy consumption and policy options for conservation

The paper describes a study of the UK surface passenger transport sector whose main objectives were to investigate the pattern of present and future energy consumption and to provide a preliminary options to reduce energy use. Analysis shows the dominance of travel by private car in energy consumption patterns. Forecasts of energy consumption are then presented for four alternative future as a basis for evaluating long-term energy-saving options. This evaluation suggests that the most attractive policy relates to changes in private vehicle technology. However, there is considerable uncertainty about the outcome of this and other policy options.     

智能建筑的能源管理与控制

为了实现节能目标,本文阐述了智能建筑的节能观点、能源管理和能源设备控制等问题。     

空调水泵的节能控制

1前言多年来 ,随着建筑业的发展 ,高层楼宇遍布各地。为改善和提高办公及居住条件 ,这些大楼都设有中央空调系统。通过采用集中供风的方式 ,由空调主机产生冷源 ,利用冷冻水泵和管路将冷冻水输送到各楼层的每个房间 ,再由房内的风机盘管组件与空气进行热交换 ,使室内的温度得到     

Energy storage in the UK electrical network: Estimation of the scale and review of technology options

This paper aims to clarify the difference between stores of energy in the form of non-rechargeable stores of energy such as fossil-fuels, and the storage of electricity by devices that are rechargeable. The existing scale of these two distinct types of storage is considered in the UK context, followed by a review of rechargeable technology options. The storage is found to be overwhelmingly contained within the fossil-fuel stores of conventional generators, but their scale is thought to be determined by the risks associated with long supply chains and price variability. The paper also aims to add to the debate regarding the need to have more flexible supply and demand available within the UK electrical network in order to balance the expected increase of wind derived generation. We conclude that the decarbonisation challenge facing the UK electricity sector should be seen not only as a supply and demand challenge but also as a storage challenge.     

智能锅炉控制系统的节能效果

通过现场对比测试,对智能锅炉控制系统的节能效果进行了综合分析。     

Energy usage and the economics of environmental control

As environmental standards are raised it is becoming increasingly important to evaluate the extent to which pollution is merely passed from one medium to another. One instance where this happens is in the electricity requirements of pollution control equipment. This paper shows that in two typical industries, electricity usage and the associated pollution is being increased to help generate very minor environmental benefits. This is most unlikely to represent an efficient use of resources and there is certainly a case for policymakers to evaluate this aspect of enery use and environmental control.     

Energy-saving options

When several energy-thrift measures are implemented simultaneously in the same building, it is probable that the overall saving will be less than the sum of those expected if implemented individually, each time starting from the present situation.

The relationship between such savings and capital investment has been obtained for 90 energy-saving options in total, implemented on four hospital sites. It is concluded that the financial returns on the capital expenditure are considerably enhanced by spreading the investment over several sites, rather than by investing in the relatively high rate-of-return options on only a single site.     

Optimization of alternative options for SO2 emissions control in the Mexican electrical sector

This article develops a least-cost optimization model in terms of the projected SO₂ abatement costs of nine selected options for SO₂ emissions control in the 10 most polluting power plants of the Mexican electrical sector (MES)—including SO₂ scrubbing technologies, fuel oil hydrotreating desulphurization and fuel substitutions. The model not only finds the optimal combination of SO₂ control options and generating units at 10% reduction intervals referred to the total SO₂ emissions but also meets the restriction imposed in the NOM-085-ECOL-1994 (Mexican Official Norm) for allowable emission levels within critical zones. Similarly, two schemes are studied and analysed in this model: the first case considers the economical benefits derived from the substitution of fuel oil by imported low sulphur content coal in the Petacalco power plant and; the second case does not considered such economical benefits. Finally, results are obtained for these two cases in terms of the corresponding costs—investment, O&M, fuel—, abatement costs and the SO₂ emissions reduction.     

Canada's energy options

Section 1—Background The conventional energy wisdoms; Alberta, oil and the tarsands—the capital cost crunch; the national energy picture and predictions for future—beginning of the end for conventional policies in [Strategies for Self-Reliance] problems of credibility for the [nuclear solution] cases for conservation and renewable energy as real alternatives to continuing, deepening crisis. Section 2—Specific Issues and Considerations Underlying components of Canadian energy crisis—capital cost pinch; lead time pinch; over-optimistic reserve forecasting; other socio-economic, environmental and political hangups. Examples: Northern energy and Dene threat to development; vast capital costs for tarsand development; environmental and cost checks on rapid, large expansion of hydro potentials; problems for nuclear energy—CANDU and Quebec separatism; overseas sales [sweeteners]. Section 3—The Mounting Crisis Ongoing thrust of energy development versus new problems and policy rationales; particular problems for nuclear power and rapid, large expansion of open-pit coal working; infrastructure and economic-social problems decreasing credibility of nuclear power and expanded coal; lead time and consumer resistance problems for electrification; transport problems for coal; strategic and political problems for nuclear; environment problems for coal; capital cost constraints. Section 4—Conservation and Renewable Energy: the New Solution Preamble to Conservation and the New Renewable Energy Sources. Section 5—Conservation Canada's energy-inefficient society; international economic and social comparisons; potentials for eliminating/reducing demand while raising GNP and showing population growth (both at decreased relative rates); economic development stages and [decoupling] high yielding conservation sectors; quantitative summaries of potentials; policy, social and economic aspects. Section 6—The Renewable Energy Sources Reasons for optimism on renewables; advantages of renewables; solar energy; wind energy; biomass energy; quantitative summaries of potentials; cost and job impacts; conclusions regarding renewable energy sources. Section 7—Programming for Conservation and Renewable Energy Outlines for a structure on which renewables and conservation are developed.     

Energy control of supercapacitor/fuel cell hybrid power source

This paper deals with a flatness based control principle in a hybrid system utilizing a fuel cell as a main power source and a supercapacitor as an auxiliary power source. The control strategy is based on regulation of the dc bus capacitor energy and, consequently, voltage regulation. The proposed control algorithm does not use a commutation algorithm when the operating mode changes with the load power variation and, thus, avoids chattering effects. Using the flatness based control method, the fuel cell dynamic and its delivered power is perfectly controlled, and the fuel cell can operate in a safe condition. In the hybrid system, the supercapacitor functions during transient energy delivery or during energy recovery situations. To validate the proposed method, the control algorithms are executed in dSPACE hardware, while analogical current loops regulators are employed in the experimental environment. The experimental results prove the validity of the proposed approach.     

家用变频调速空调器的节能分析

在对家用变频调速空调器的节能原理和全国家用空调器使用情况分析的基础上,客观评价了变频调速空调器的节能效果和经济性。     

Energy saving and pollution control for short rotary furnace in secondary lead smelters

This work discusses a method to suppress the fugitive emissions of total solid particles (TSP) and save energy for industrial lead smelters. Pilot scale experiments simulating the industrial short rotary furnace (SRF) in lead smelters were studied. An energy study was manifested on a typical lead smelter. Factors affecting the objectives of this work have been investigated.The results obtained revealed that the rate of fuel consumption of heavy fuel (mazout) is highest in the early period of smelting. The flue gases in the existing small lead smelters are heavily loaded, with TSP outweighing the constrains given by law 4/94. About 60% of the energy input in the SRF escapes to the environment causing pollution hazards of TSP and spreading out excessive heat. Applying clean technology including pelletization of battery paste saved about 35% and 12.5% of heat and total energy consumption, whereas fugitive TSP decreases by about 67%. A theoretical model explaining the lead recovery process is given. It is based on heat and mass transfer and the thermodynamic properties of the species and reactions involved. Prediction of the findings of this model has been experimentally verified with a marginal accuracy of 4%. On an economic basis, nearly 14% of the plant turnover is saved annually.     

换热站节能控制系统的设计与应用

简要叙述了换热站设备的基本构成和工作过程。根据换热站供暖技术要求,采用PID调节器、PLC和变频器,设计了换热站节能控制系统,并给出具体的电路设计图。通过采用电动阀门、PID调节器、PLC和变频器对换热站设备进行自动控制,大大提高了设备的供热能力,维修方便,使换热设备更加安全可靠运行,并节省了大量的能源。