Memories of social interactions: Age differences in emotional intensity.

The current study examined age differences in the intensity of emotions experienced during social interactions. Because emotions are felt most intensely in situations central to motivational goals, age differences in emotional intensity may exist in social situations that meet the goals for one age group more than the other. Guided by theories of emotional intensity and socioemotional selectivity, it was hypothesized that social partner type would elicit different affective responses by age. Younger (n = 71) and older (n = 71) adults recalled experiences of positive and negative emotions with new friends, established friends, and family members from the prior week. Compared with younger adults, older adults reported lower intensity positive emotions with new friends, similarly intense positive emotions with established friends, and higher intensity positive emotions with family members. Older adults reported lower intensity negative emotions for all social partners than did younger adults, but this difference was most pronounced for interactions with new friends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex without emotional involvement: an evolutionary interpretation of sex differences

Two samples of male (n = 243) and female (n = 298) college students completed sexual surveys, and in-depth, oral interviews were conducted with 28 highly sexually active female college students. Findings supported five predictions derived from evolutionary (parental-investment) theory. Even when females voluntarily engaged in low-investment copulation, coitus typically caused them to feel emotionally vulnerable, and to have thoughts expressing anxiety about partners' willingness to invest. For females, increasing numbers of partners correlated positively with the incidence of these feelings and thoughts; for males, these correlations were negative. Females' attempts to continue regular coitus when they desired more investment than partners were willing to give produced feelings of distress, degradation, and exploitation despite acceptance of liberal sexual morality. Increasing numbers of partners did not mitigate these reactions in females and may exacerbate them. Multiple-partner females developed techniques for dealing with their emotional reactions to low-investment copulation: They frequently tested their partners for signs of ability and willingness to invest (e.g., dominance, prowess, jealousy, nurturance), and they limited or terminated sexual relations when they perceived partners' investment as inadequate. Results were consistent with the view that the emotional-motivational mechanisms that mediate sexual arousal and attraction are sexually dimorphic.     

Sex differences in social behavior: comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology

In rats, copper deficiency leads to low copper metalloenzyme activity, high serum cholesterol, and cardiovascular lesions. In humans, moderately low copper intake may be common, but the consequences remain largely uncertain. The present study examined the effects of copper supplementation (2 mg/d for 4 weeks in a copper/placebo crossover design) in 20 adult men with moderately high plasma cholesterol. End-point measurements were three copper enzyme activities, erythrocyte superoxide dismutase (SOD), plasma ceruloplasmin (Cp), and plasma diamine oxidase (DAO), and three parameters related to the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), plasma cholesterol, plasma lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)], and lag times for very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation in vitro. Although copper had no significant effects on any parameter for the entire study group, it did significantly increase two enzyme activities (SOD and DAO), as well as lipoprotein oxidation lag times, in 10 subjects in the lower half of a median split for precopper values. Thus, copper supplementation appeared to influence some types of measurements in subjects beginning with less than median values.     

Sex differences in cooperation: A meta-analytic review of social dilemmas.

Although it is commonly believed that women are kinder and more cooperative than men, there is conflicting evidence for this assertion. Current theories of sex differences in social behavior suggest that it may be useful to examine in what situations men and women are likely to differ in cooperation. Here, we derive predictions from both sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives on context-specific sex differences in cooperation, and we conduct a unique meta-analytic study of 272 effect sizes—sampled across 50 years of research—on social dilemmas to examine several potential moderators. The overall average effect size is not statistically different from zero (d = –0.05), suggesting that men and women do not differ in their overall amounts of cooperation. However, the association between sex and cooperation is moderated by several key features of the social context: Male–male interactions are more cooperative than female–female interactions (d = 0.16), yet women cooperate more than men in mixed-sex interactions (d = –0.22). In repeated interactions, men are more cooperative than women. Women were more cooperative than men in larger groups and in more recent studies, but these differences disappeared after statistically controlling for several study characteristics. We discuss these results in the context of both sociocultural and evolutionary theories of sex differences, stress the need for an integrated biosocial approach, and outline directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in social memory tasks.

College females were superior to college males in memory for 3 tasks—one life situation and 2 names-and-faces tests. A new test, the KW Memory for Names and Faces Test, demonstrated a "same-sex recall" tendency for this sample. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in emotional responses to erotic literature.

Compared the effect on male and female undergraduates (n = 112) of reading an erotic passage from a novel; control Ss (n = 112) read a passage from a psychology textbook. Men reported more sexual arousal, interest, and joy in response to the erotic passage, and women reported more disgust. Differences were significant but not large. The sexes did not differ as to fear or guilt reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in social behavior: Are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible?

Examines the competing claims of 2 explanations of sex differences in social behavior: social role theory, and evolutionary psychology. The origin and scope of research on sex differences in social behavior are outlined, and the application of social role theory is discussed. Research that is based on modern sexual selection theory is described, and whether its findings can be explained by social role theory is considered. Findings associated with social role theory are weighted against evolutionary explanations. It is concluded that evolutionary theory accounts much better for the overall pattern of sex differences and for their origins. A coevolutionary approach is proposed to explain cross-cultural consistency in socialization patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in sources of social self-esteem.

Administered R. Ziller's social self-esteem measure, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale, and a scale rating self, mother, and father to 40 female and 37 male undergraduates. As predicted, the relationship of need for approval, grades, and family sibling structure to social self-esteem was different for each sex. Ss high in social self-esteem were: males with high need for approval; females with low need for approval; males with grades of A and B; females with grades of C; and male firstborns when the 2nd-born sibling was female. No relationship with perceived parental identification was found. Results support the hypothesis that males must succeed in culturally masculine roles to maintain self-esteem. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in positive well-being: A consideration of emotional style and marital status.

This article reviews all published studies reporting tests for sex differences in well-being. Women were found to report greater happiness and life satisfaction than men. This sex difference was explained in terms of men's and women's social roles: The female (vs. male) gender role specifies greater emotional responsiveness. Furthermore, past role-related experiences provide women with appropriate skills and attitudes. Women's (vs. men's) greater well-being was also found to hold for married but not unmarried Ss: For both sexes the married state (vs. unmarried) was associated with favorable well-being, but the favorable outcomes proved stronger for women than men. Given that most Ss were married, the overall sex difference in well-being can be attributed to Ss' marital status. These findings were discussed in the context of prior research on sex differences in negative well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toddlers' language development: Sex differences within social risk.

Sex differences in the association between environmental risk and language development were examined in a longitudinal study of 54 high-social-risk families. Measures of the environment included information about family stress and coping, opportunities for cognitive and linguistic stimulation, the nature of learning experiences, and the affective quality of the infant–mother relationship. Despite apparently similar family conditions and early experiences, there were significant sex differences favoring girls on observational measures of spontaneous language production at 20 and 30 mo of age. For the group as a whole, sex differences on standardized tests at 24 and 36 mo of age were nonsignificant. In addition, relations between aspects of the learning environment and children's language performance differed for boys and girls, supporting a moderator interpretation of the findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in problem-solving style: The role of emotional salience.

Qualitative differences in problem-solving style for situations varying in emotional salience were examined among adolescents, young, middle-aged, and older adults. Participants wrote essays on how each of 15 problem situations should be resolved. There were minimal age differences for problem-focused strategies, with all age groups using this strategy the most. Age differences for problem-solving strategy were highly dependent on the degree to which the situation was emotionally salient. All individuals were more likely to use an avoidant-denial strategy in low emotionally salient situations and passive-dependent and cognitive-analysis strategies in high emotionally salient situations. However, older adults used both passive-dependent and avoidant-denial strategies more than younger age groups. Problem-focused strategies were used least in high emotionally salient situations. Implications of findings are discussed from an adult developmental perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in emotion: Expression, experience, and physiology.

Although previous studies of emotional responding have found that women are more emotionally expressive than men, it remains unclear whether men and women differ in other domains of emotional response. We assessed the expressive, experiential, and physiological emotional responses of men and women in 2 studies. In Study 1, undergraduates viewed emotional films. Compared with men, women were more expressive, did not differ in reports of experienced emotion, and demonstrated different patterns of skin conductance responding. In Study 2, undergraduate men and women viewed emotional films and completed self-report scales of expressivity, gender role characteristics, and family expressiveness. Results replicated those from Study 1, and gender role characteristics and family expressiveness moderated the relationship between sex and expressivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis.

Men are overrepresented in socially problematic behaviors, such as aggression and criminal behavior, which have been linked to impulsivity. Our review of impulsivity is organized around the tripartite theoretical distinction between reward hypersensitivity, punishment hyposensitivity, and inadequate effortful control. Drawing on evolutionary, criminological, developmental, and personality theories, we predicted that sex differences would be most pronounced in risky activities with men demonstrating greater sensation seeking, greater reward sensitivity, and lower punishment sensitivity. We predicted a small female advantage in effortful control. We analyzed 741 effect sizes from 277 studies, including psychometric and behavioral measures. Women were consistently more punishment sensitive (d = ?0.33), but men did not show greater reward sensitivity (d = 0.01). Men showed significantly higher sensation seeking on questionnaire measures (d = 0.41) and on a behavioral risk-taking task (d = 0.36). Questionnaire measures of deficits in effortful control showed a very modest effect size in the male direction (d = 0.08). Sex differences were not found on delay discounting or executive function tasks. The results indicate a stronger sex difference in motivational rather than effortful or executive forms of behavior control. Specifically, they support evolutionary and biological theories of risk taking predicated on sex differences in punishment sensitivity. A clearer understanding of sex differences in impulsivity depends upon recognizing important distinctions between sensation seeking and impulsivity, between executive and effortful forms of control, and between impulsivity as a deficit and as a trait. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of 205 studies involving 23,702 Ss to determine whether there are sex differences in self-disclosure. Across these studies, women disclosed slightly more than men (d?=?18). This effect size was not homogeneous across studies. Several moderator variables were found. Sex of target and the interaction effect of relationship to target and measure of self-disclosure moderated the effect of sex on self-disclosure. Sex differences in self-disclosure were significantly greater to female and same-sex partners than to opposite-sex or male partners. When the target had a relationship with the discloser (i.e., friend, parent, or spouse), women disclosed more than men regardless of whether self-disclosure was measured by self-report or observation. When the target was a stranger, men reported that they disclosed similarly to women; however, studies using observational measures of self-disclosure found that women disclosed more than men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and generation differences and similarities in social attitudes.

79 male and 89 female college students and their parents (108 fathers and 138 mothers) responded to items dealing with social issues. Parents were more conservative on 21 of the 24 items, significantly so on 13. Sex differences were significant for 7 items and were interpreted in terms of self-serving attitudes and the tender-tough dimension. The generation gap was greatest for items closest to the daily lives of the respondents and may be both an expression of and a contributor to social change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex roles and gender differences in the experience of depression.

Studied sex differences and sex role correlates of depressive experiences in 82 female and 39 male college students. Gender differences in depressive experiences were found. These differences were consistent with societal sex role expectations. The level of depression on the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale was negatively associated with sex role congruence, as assessed by the Sex-Role Stereotype Questionnaire, scored for Competency and Warmth–Expressiveness. Degree of sex role congruence within the male and female samples was also associated with different depressive experiences on the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire. The sex differences and the different intrasex correlations indicated that experiences of depression are associated with different facets of sex role stereotypes. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in childhood psychopathology: A review.

Reviews sex differences in the major categories of childhood behavior disorders most relevant to the issue of continuity between child and adult disorders. Explanations for these differences are explored with attention given to both the different experiences and the different endowments of the sexes. These differences are then compared and contrasted with sex differences in adult psychopathology. (4? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in emotional responses to "erotic literature."

32 males and 32 females read either a chapter from C. Willingham's Eternal Fire, an erotic and essentially exploitative passage, or a series of sections from Lady Chatterly's Lover which were modified to portray a clearly positive sexual experience for Lady Chatterly. Data from the Differential Emotions Scale and the Sexual Arousal Scale indicate that sex differences in response to erotic literature are complex and depend on the interpersonal as well as the erotic content of the passages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role conflicts and the experience of childbearing.

Suggests that expectant/new parents in the US face a choice of sex roles: Mothers choose between the traditional role of full-time care-giver and the nontraditional role of combining care-giving and employment; fathers decide between a traditional role with limited involvement in infant care and a nontraditional role with extensive involvement in the birth and care of their infants. In the light of evidence that the decision-making process is a source of substantial conflict for some parents, the author evaluates psychoanalytic views on sex roles and parenthood, traces the emergence of new roles, and considers how clinicians can assist mothers and fathers who are experiencing conflict over sex roles. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the intimacy of social interaction: Further examination of potential explanations.

Two studies, with 58 female and 49 male undergraduates, evaluated potential explanations of the finding that males' same-sex interaction is less intimate than that of females. These explanations concerned differing criteria for intimacy, labeling differences, selectivity in the occasions or partners for intimacy, the question of capability vs preference, and gender-cued stereotypic judgments. In a replication of the essential datum, diarylike reports of naturalistic interaction indicated that males' same-sex interaction was substantially less intimate than that of females. Subsequently, Ss were asked to judge standard stimuli and to have an intimate conversation in a laboratory setting. Analyses revealed that the sex difference could not be attributed to differing criteria, labeling, selectivity, or gender-cued judgments. Further analyses indicated that preference played more of a role in the sex difference than did capability, because situational manipulations eliminated the sex difference. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)