Development of optics for x-ray phase-contrast imaging of high energy density plasmas

Phase-contrast or refraction-enhanced x-ray radiography can be useful for the diagnostic of low-Z high energy density plasmas, such as imploding inertial confinement fusion (ICF) pellets, due to its sensitivity to density gradients. To separate and quantify the absorption and refraction contributions to x-ray images, methods based on microperiodic optics, such as shearing interferometry, can be used. To enable applying such methods with the energetic x rays needed for ICF radiography, we investigate a new type of optics consisting of grazing incidence microperiodic mirrors. Using such mirrors, efficient phase-contrast imaging systems could be built for energies up to ～100?keV. In addition, a simple lithographic method is proposed for the production of the microperiodic x-ray mirrors based on the difference in the total reflection between a low-Z substrate and a high-Z film. Prototype mirrors fabricated with this method show promising characteristics in laboratory tests.     

A clamp-type pressure cell for high energy x-ray diffraction

We present a clamp-type pressure cell for high energy x-ray diffraction. The pressure cell was specifically designed for studies of weak superstructure reflections at low temperatures in transition metal oxides, resulting from, e.g., charge density modulations. Using a photon energy of E=100 keV, the bulk properties of single crystals with a volume of typically 2-5 mm3 can be studied in transmission geometry. To demonstrate the performance of the pressure cell, we present data on the charge stripe order in the high-temperature superconductor La1.875Ba0.125CuO4.     

A 1 MA, variable risetime pulse generator for high energy density plasma research

COBRA is a 0.5 Omega pulse generator driving loads of order 10 nH inductance to >1 MA current. The design is based on independently timed, laser-triggered switching of four water pulse-forming lines whose outputs are added in parallel to drive the load current pulse. The detailed design and operation of the switching to give a wide variety of current pulse shapes and rise times from 95 to 230 ns is described. The design and operation of a simple inductive load voltage monitor are described which allows good accounting of load impedance and energy dissipation. A method of eliminating gas bubbles on the underside of nearly horizontal insulator surfaces in water was required for reliable operation of COBRA; a novel and effective solution to this problem is described.     

Quantitative measurement of hard x-ray spectra for high intensity laser produced plasma

X-ray line spectra ranging from 17 to 77 keV were quantitatively measured with a Laue spectrometer, composed of a cylindrically curved crystal and a detector. Either a visible CCD detector coupled with a CsI phosphor screen or an imaging plate can be chosen, depending on the signal intensities and exposure times. The absolute sensitivity of the spectrometer system was calibrated using pre-characterized laser-produced x-ray sources and radioisotopes. The integrated reflectivity for the crystal is in good agreement with predictions by an open code for x-ray diffraction. The energy transfer efficiency from incident laser beams to hot electrons, as the energy transfer agency for specific x-ray line emissions, is derived as a consequence of this work.     

Diagnostics for ion beam driven high energy density physics experiments

Intense beams of heavy ions are capable of heating volumetric samples of matter to high energy density. Experiments are performed on the resulting warm dense matter (WDM) at the NDCX-I ion beam accelerator. The 0.3 MeV, 30 mA K(+) beam from NDCX-I heats foil targets by combined longitudinal and transverse neutralized drift compression of the ion beam. Both the compressed and uncompressed parts of the NDCX-I beam heat targets. The exotic state of matter (WDM) in these experiments requires specialized diagnostic techniques. We have developed a target chamber and fielded target diagnostics including a fast multichannel optical pyrometer, optical streak camera, laser Doppler-shift interferometer (Velocity Interferometer System for Any Reflector), beam transmission diagnostics, and high-speed gated cameras. We also present plans and opportunities for diagnostic development and a new target chamber for NDCX-II.     

Characterizing high energy spectra of NIF ignition Hohlraums using a differentially filtered high energy multipinhole x-ray imager

Understanding hot electron distributions generated inside Hohlraums is important to the national ignition campaign for controlling implosion symmetry and sources of preheat. While direct imaging of hot electrons is difficult, their spatial distribution and spectrum can be deduced by detecting high energy x-rays generated as they interact with target materials. We used an array of 18 pinholes with four independent filter combinations to image entire Hohlraums with a magnification of 0.87× during the Hohlraum energetics campaign on NIF. Comparing our results with Hohlraum simulations indicates that the characteristic 10-40 keV hot electrons are mainly generated from backscattered laser-plasma interactions rather than from Hohlraum hydrodynamics.     

A diagnostic system for electrical faults in a high current discharge plasma setup

A diagnostic system to detect electrical faults inside a coaxial high current discharge device is presented here. This technique utilizes two biconical antennas picking up electromagnetic radiation from the discharge device, a voltage divider sensing input voltage, and a Rogowski coil measuring the main discharge current. A computer program then analyses frequency components in these signals and provides information as to whether the discharge event was normal or any breakdown fault occurred inside the coaxial device. The diagnostic system is developed for a 450 kV and 50 kA capillary discharge plasma setup. For the setup various possible faults are analyzed by electrical simulation, followed by experimental results. In the case of normal discharge through the capillary load the dominant frequency is ～4 MHz. Under faulty conditions, the peak in magnitude versus frequency plot of the antenna signal changes according to the fault position which involves different paths causing variation in the equivalent circuit elements.     

Single x-ray transmission system for bone mineral density determination

Bones are the support of the body. They are composed of many inorganic compounds and other organic materials that all together can be used to determine the mineral density of the bones. The bone mineral density is a measure index that is widely used as an indicator of the health of the bone. A typical manner to evaluate the quality of the bone is a densitometry study; a dual x-ray absorptiometry system based study that has been widely used to assess the mineral density of some animals' bones. However, despite the success stories of utilizing these systems in many different applications, it is a very expensive method that requires frequent calibration processes to work properly. Moreover, its usage in small species applications (e.g., rodents) has not been quite demonstrated yet. Following this argument, it is suggested that there is a need for an instrument that would perform such a task in a more reliable and economical manner. Therefore, in this paper we explore the possibility to develop a new, affordable, and reliable single x-ray absorptiometry system. The method consists of utilizing a single x-ray source, an x-ray image sensor, and a computer platform that all together, as a whole, will allow us to calculate the mineral density of the bone. Utilizing an x-ray transmission theory modified through a version of the Lambert-Beer law equation, a law that expresses the relationship among the energy absorbed, the thickness, and the absorption coefficient of the sample at the x-rays wavelength to calculate the mineral density of the bone can be advantageous. Having determined the parameter equation that defines the ratio of the pixels in radiographies and the bone mineral density [measured in mass per unit of area (g/cm(2))], we demonstrated the utility of our novel methodology by calculating the mineral density of Wistar rats' femur bones.     

Optimizing the operation of a high resolution vertical Johann spectrometer using a high energy fluorescer x-ray source

This paper describes the operation and testing for a vertical Johann spectrometer (VJS) operating in the 13 keV range. The spectrometer is designed to use thin curved mica crystals or thick germanium crystals. The VJS must have a resolution of E/ΔE=3000 or better to measure the Doppler broadening of highly ionized krypton and operate at a small x-ray angle in order to be used as a diagnostic in a laser plasma target chamber. The VJS was aligned, tested, and optimized using a fluorescer type high energy x-ray (HEX) source located at National Security Technologies (NSTec), LLC, in Livermore, CA. The HEX uses a 160 kV x-ray tube to excite fluorescence from various targets. Both rubidium and bismuth fluorescers were used for this effort. This presentation describes the NSTec HEX system and the methods used to optimize and characterize the VJS performance.     

An upgraded x-ray spectroscopy diagnostic on MST

An upgraded x-ray spectroscopy diagnostic is used to measure the distribution of fast electrons in MST and to determine Z(eff) and the particle diffusion coefficient D(r). A radial array of 12 CdZnTe hard-x-ray detectors measures 10-150 keV Bremsstrahlung from fast electrons, a signature of reduced stochasticity and improved confinement in the plasma. A new Si soft-x-ray detector measures 2-10 keV Bremsstrahlung from thermal and fast electrons. The shaped output pulses from both detector types are digitized and the resulting waveforms are fit with Gaussians to resolve pileup and provide good time and energy resolution. Lead apertures prevent detector saturation and provide a well-known etendue, while lead shielding prevents pickup from stray x-rays. New Be vacuum windows transmit >2?keV x-rays, and additional Al and Be filters are sometimes used to reduce low energy flux for better resolution at higher energies. Measured spectra are compared to those predicted by the Fokker-Planck code CQL3D to deduce Z(eff) and D(r).     

基于MEMS工艺的高能量密度微电磁驱动器

提出了制作高能量密度电磁驱动器的工艺方法。利用微机械(MEMS)工艺在硅片上得到多匝平面线圈和磁芯的掩模图形,接着沉积种子层铜(Cu),然后对种子层进行整体Cu的电铸;当种子层生长到20 μm左右时,剥离硅片表面的镀层并用光刻胶保护磁芯位置的镀层;再用沿线电铸的方法对线圈进行电铸;最后保护制作好的线圈镀层,电铸NiFe合金材料。在10 mm×10 mm×0.38 mm的硅片上,制作出线圈匝数22×2(铜线截面积60 μm×60 μm、总长度达1 164 mm)、NiFe合金磁芯尺寸为3 mm×3 mm×0.2 mm的高能量密度微型电磁驱动器。把这种微型驱动器应用于无阀微泵做驱动实验:通入0.3 A的正弦电流时,微驱动器产生约50 mN的电磁力。实验结果表明:这种型微电磁驱动器在相同的输入功率下,比同类其他微电磁驱动器具有更高的能量密度,能产生更大的电磁驱动力。     

Fast plasma discharge capillary design as a high power throughput soft x-ray emission source

We present the experimental details and results from a low energy but high repetition rate compact plasma capillary source for extreme ultraviolet and soft x-ray research and applications. Two lengths of capillary are mounted in two versions of a closely related design. The discharge operates in 1.6 and 3.2 mm inner diameter alumina capillaries of lengths 21 and 36 mm. The use of water both as dielectric and as coolant simplifies the compact low inductance design with nanosecond discharge periods. The stored electrical energy of the discharge is approximately 0.5 J and is provided by directly charging the capacitor plates from an inexpensive insulated-gate bipolar transistor in 1?μs or less. We present characteristic argon spectra from plasma between 30 and 300 A? as well as temporally resolved x-ray energy fluence in discrete bands on axis. The spectra also allow the level of ablated wall material to be gauged and associated with useful capillary lifetime according to the chosen configuration and energy storage. The connection between the electron beams associated with the transient hollow cathode mechanism, soft x-ray output, capillary geometry, and capillary lifetime is reported. The role of these e-beams and the plasma as measured on-axis is discussed. The relation of the electron temperature and the ionization stages observed is discussed in the context of some model results of ionization in a non-Maxwellian plasma.     

High energy resolution five-crystal spectrometer for high quality fluorescence and absorption measurements on an x-ray absorption spectroscopy beamline

Fluorescence detection is classically achieved with a solid state detector (SSD) on x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) beamlines. This kind of detection however presents some limitations related to the limited energy resolution and saturation. Crystal analyzer spectrometers (CAS) based on a Johann-type geometry have been developed to overcome these limitations. We have tested and installed such a system on the BM30B/CRG-FAME XAS beamline at the ESRF dedicated to the structural investigation of very dilute systems in environmental, material and biological sciences. The spectrometer has been designed to be a mobile device for easy integration in multi-purpose hard x-ray synchrotron beamlines or even with a laboratory x-ray source. The CAS allows to collect x-ray photons from a large solid angle with five spherically bent crystals. It will cover a large energy range allowing to probe fluorescence lines characteristic of all the elements from Ca (Z = 20) to U (Z = 92). It provides an energy resolution of 1-2 eV. XAS spectroscopy is the main application of this device even if other spectroscopic techniques (RIXS, XES, XRS, etc.) can be also achieved with it. The performances of the CAS are illustrated by two experiments that are difficult or impossible to perform with SSD and the complementarity of the CAS vs SSD detectors is discussed.     

Prototype high resolution multienergy soft x-ray array for NSTX

A novel diagnostic design seeks to enhance the capability of multienergy soft x-ray (SXR) detection by using an image intensifier to amplify the signals from a larger set of filtered x-ray profiles. The increased number of profiles and simplified detection system provides a compact diagnostic device for measuring T(e) in addition to contributions from density and impurities. A single-energy prototype system has been implemented on NSTX, comprised of a filtered x-ray pinhole camera, which converts the x-rays to visible light using a CsI:Tl phosphor. SXR profiles have been measured in high performance plasmas at frame rates of up to 10 kHz, and comparisons to the toroidally displaced tangential multi-energy SXR have been made.     

Pulse-signal digitizer for high-temperature plasma diagnostic systems

A pulse-signal digitizer for laser, neutron, and gamma diagnostics of high-temperature plasma at the GOL-3 and GDL (Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences) is described. The architecture of a two-channel 12-bit ADC12500PXIe digitizer with a sampling rate of 500MHz, a PXI Express interface, and a built-in reconfigurable digital signal processing unit is described. The results of ADC12500PXIe metrological tests are presented: its signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), jitter, effective number of bits, and differential and integral nonlinearities are shown. The high-temperature plasma diagnostic systems based on ADC12500PXIe are considered. The structure of the digital signal processing unit that was modified for a prototype of the ITER vertical neutron camera (Cadarache, France) is described.     

A collimator for hot plasma x-ray diagnostics in ion sources

We present a collimator configuration for measuring energy resolved x-ray plasma volume bremsstrahlung emitted, e.g., by an ECRIS. Special attention we paid to shielding the detector against interfering Compton scattered radiation and wall bremsstrahlung stemming from the collimator entrance aperture. We estimate the efficiency for shielding of Compton scattered radiation at least attainable by this arrangement.     

岛津μEDX型微区能量色散型X射线荧光光谱分析仪

本文介绍岛津公司最新的μEDX能量色散型X射线荧光光谱分析仪的特点。     

Differential interferometry for measurement of density fluctuations and fluctuation-induced transport (invited)

Differential interferometry employs two parallel laser beams with a small spatial offset (less than beam width) and frequency difference (1-2 MHz) using common optics and a single mixer for a heterodyne detection. The differential approach allows measurement of the electron density gradient, its fluctuations, as well as the equilibrium density distribution. This novel interferometry technique is immune to fringe skip errors and is particularly useful in harsh plasma environments. Accurate calibration of the beam spatial offset, accomplished by use of a rotating dielectric wedge, is required to enable broad application of this approach. Differential interferometry has been successfully used on the Madison Symmetric Torus reversed-field pinch plasma to directly measure fluctuation-induced transport along with equilibrium density profile evolution during pellet injection. In addition, by combining differential and conventional interferometry, both linear and nonlinear terms of the electron density fluctuation energy equation can be determined, thereby allowing quantitative investigation of the origin of the density fluctuations. The concept, calibration, and application of differential interferometry are presented.     

Comparative wear in titanium diboride coatings on steel using high energy density processes

A comparison between the tribological properties of titanium diboride (TiB₂) deposited using high energy density processes such as Pulse Electrode Surfacing (PES) and Laser Surface Engineering (LSE) has been made. The wear resistance of TiB₂ coated surface is higher than AISI 1010 steel. The wear resistance of the LSE coated TiB₂ coating is even better than that of the PES deposited TiB₂ coating. Coefficient of friction values for LSE coated TiB₂ coating (μ=0.6) are lower than PES deposited TiB₂ coating (μ=0.7). Wear occurs in PES deposited TiB₂ coating by brittle fracture and attrition type mechanisms whereas mixed adhesive–abrasive wear in LSE deposited TiB₂ coating occurs by localized plastic deformation of the soft matrix phase Fe from a “composite” layer on the surface.