Omega-6/Omega-3 Essential Fatty Acid Ratio and Chronic Diseases

Several sources of information suggest that human beings evolved on a diet with a ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 essential fatty acids (EFA) of ∼1 whereas in Western diets the ratio is 15/1-16.7/1. Western diets are deficient in omega-3 fatty acids, and have excessive amounts of omega-6 fatty acids compared with the diet on which human beings evolved and their genetic patterns were established. Excessive amounts of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and a very high omega-6/omega-3 ratio, as is found in today's Western diets, promote the pathogenesis of many diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, whereas increased levels of omega-3 PUFA (a lower omega-6/omega-3 ratio), exert suppressive effects. In the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease, a ratio of 4/1 was associated with a 70% decrease in total mortality. A ratio of 2.5/1 reduced rectal cell proliferation in patients with colorectal cancer, whereas a ratio of 4/1 with the same amount of omega-3 PUFA had no effect. The lower omega-6/omega-3 ratio in women with breast cancer was associated with decreased risk. A ratio of 2-3/1 suppressed inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and a ratio of 5/1 had a beneficial effect on patients with asthma, whereas a ratio of 10/1 had adverse consequences. These studies indicate that the optimal ratio may vary with the disease under consideration. This is consistent with the fact that chronic diseases are multigenic and multifactorial. Therefore, it is quite possible that the therapeutic dose of omega-3 fatty acids will depend on the degree of severity of disease resulting from the genetic predisposition. A lower ratio of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids is more desirable in reducing the risk of many of the chronic diseases of high prevalence in Western societies, as well as in the developing countries, that are being exported to the rest of the world     

Omega-3 Fatty Acid Composition of Persian Gulf Fishes

The aim of this study was to investigate the content of omega-3 fatty acids in Persian Gulf fishes. The fishes were collected from Persian Gulf and the content of fatty acids in the head, muscle, and liver of fishes were determined. Quantitative analysis of fatty acids was performed by gas chromatography (GC) and methylmyristate was used as the reference material. GC and mass spectrometer (GC- mass) was applied for qualitative analysis and cod liver oil with all of omega-3 fatty acids was used as standard. Ghezel ala, Zamin kan-e-dom navari and Sorkhu mahi had maximum levels of omega-3 in total body. Halva Sefid, Gish-e-deraz baleh and Shamshiri were poor sources of omega-3. The liver of fish had the most content of omega-3 fatty acids followed by muscle and head, respectively.     

ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸在改善鸡蛋营养质量方面的研究

本文对ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸的化学结构、特性、作用及在改善鸡蛋营养质量等方面的研究进行了综述,讨论了如何通过饲喂对鸡蛋的脂肪组分加以调控,从而使其成为人类ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸的重要来源。     

Omega-6支撑身体，Omega-3支撑大脑：均衡摄入对儿童大脑发育的影响（网络首发、推荐阅读）

人体大脑和身体的发育,需要从食物中摄取均衡的营养物质。人类大脑是区分人类和其他动物的特征。食物中的必需脂肪酸是机体组织结构和功能的必要组成部分。Omega-6（O6）亚油酸（LA6）是皮肤组织的组成成分,且是炎症、血栓形成、免疫和其他信号分子的前体;Omega-3（O3）α-亚麻酸（ALA3）,特别是其长链代谢产物——二十二碳六烯酸（DHA3）,是大脑、视网膜和部分神经组织中的关键组分。从富含LA6脂肪酸（缺乏O3脂肪酸）的植物籽中提取出的廉价而优质油脂,是20世纪的西方国家食品工业生产的主要脂肪来源。在代谢通路中,高浓度的LA6脂肪酸可拮抗O3脂肪酸代谢,造成O3脂肪酸不足,因此,在给怀孕动物的饲料中,只提供富含LA6但缺乏O3脂肪酸的油脂作为唯一的脂肪来源,会导致幼崽大脑发育不良。过去20~30年的研究表明,低含量LA6且含DHA3的油脂可改善大脑的功能。近年来的研究较多集中在营养因素对大脑发育的影响,最新研究数据表明,脂肪酸平衡对营养不良儿童的大脑发育尤为重要。世界卫生组织（WHO）越来越重视大脑的营养健康,通过其下属的食品法典委员会,建议用于治疗严重急性营养不良儿童的即食治疗食品中,使用含有均衡脂肪酸组成/构成的脂肪。同样,脂肪酸均衡对老年人可能也很重要。目前,业界已经有了调整油脂成分的方法,以确保脂肪酸均衡,从而维持人体整个生命周期的大脑健康。     

Omega-3脂肪酸磷脂制备方法综述

Omega-3脂肪酸磷脂生理功能明确,生物利用度高,在医药、保健品领域具有巨大的市场潜力,其制备方法是全球磷脂研究开发的新动向。综述了目前Omega-3脂肪酸磷脂的制备方法,包括天然提取法、酶促转化法、化学合成法及微生物发酵法。天然提取法是最早获得Omega-3脂肪酸磷脂产品的方法,主要包括溶剂萃取法、膜分离法、柱层析法和盐沉淀法;酶促转化法主要包括酶促酯交换法和酶促酯化法,是目前Omega-3脂肪酸磷脂合成效率最高、最常用的方法;化学合成法及微生物发酵法处于初步研究阶段,为Omega-3脂肪酸磷脂的制备提供了新的思路。     

Bioavailability of Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Salmon Patties Compared with Capsules

ABSTRACT This sequential treatment trial compared the bioavailability of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from salmon patties fortified with fish oil (DHA:EPA ratio = 1.8, total DHA + EPA about 2.2 g), unfortified salmon patties (DHA:EPA ratio = 1.9, total DHA + EPA about 1.1 g), and fish oil capsules (DHA:EPA ratio = 1.6, total DHA + EPA = 500 mg) in healthy older adults. Fortified salmon patties produced a significantly higher mean incremental area under the curve (AUC_{fasting-9 h}) than unfortified patties for plasma EPA (37.6 in contrast to 12.9 μg·h/mL, p = 0.017), for plasma DHA (103.7 in contrast to 40.8 μg·h/mL, p = 0.035) and for plasma EPA + DHA (141.2 in contrast to 53.7 μg·h/mL, p = 0.031). Plasma EPA and DHA responses were larger with the fortified than the unfortified patties, indicating that fish oil incorporated into the salmon patties was bioavailable.     

Fatty Acid Profile and Selected Chemical Contaminants in Yellowfin Tuna From the Arabian Sea

Fresh yellowfin tuna (n = 110) collected for a period of one year was analyzed for chemical composition, fatty acids, nutrients, and toxic metals. The mean values of investigated minerals were 892, 2834, 0.81, 6.61, 0.38, 11.0, 0.94, 0.59, 0.71, 0.53, and 0.29 mg kg^–1 for Na, K, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Cr, Sr, and V, respectively. Average Cd, Pb and Hg levels were 0.016, 0.029 and 0.137 mg kg^?1, respectively. The average concentrations of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids were 196.56, 84.8, and 218 mg 100g^–1, respectively. Yellowfin tuna contained higher DHA (148.2 mg 100g^–1) than EPA (29.3 mg 100 g^–1). A meal with 100 g of this species provides 48.6 and 71.05% of the required daily level of protein and EPA+DHA, respectively. Yellowfin tuna showed low thrombogenic (0.27) and atherogenic (0.43) potential and the value obtained for h/H index (1.97) indicates that regular intake of yellowfin tuna may bring hypocholesterolemic effect. All contaminants in the studied fish were either undetectable or present at very low levels when compared to the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO), and European Union regulatory standards and yellowfin tuna would be one of the best options for people who frequently consume tuna fish to get sufficient EPA+DHA and essential elements.     

Enhancement of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Content in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Fillets

ABSTRACT:  A commercial diet for rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) was supplemented with 0 (control), 8.5%, or 15.0% (w/w) of flaxseed oil (FO). Trouts were harvested on days 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120. Boneless skinless trout fillets were recovered from fish and analyzed for fatty acid profile (FAP) and total fat. While the total fat levels of fillets were not ( P > 0.05) affected by FO supplementation, the FAP was. The lowest ( P < 0.05) proportion of saturated fatty acids was obtained from 15%, followed by 8.5% FO group, and the control group. The opposite results were observed for the unsaturated fatty acids. The highest ( P < 0.05) content of omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA) in fillets was determined in the 15.0%, followed by the 8.5% FO group, and the control group. While the 15.0% and 8.5% of FO supplementation increased ( P < 0.05) concentration of linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n3) in fillets, the eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5n3) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA, 22:6n3) contents decreased ( P < 0.05). At the same time, higher ( P < 0.05) concentration of linoleic (L, 18:2n6) and lower ( P < 0.05) concentration of arachidonic acids (AN, 20:4n6) in fillets were obtained in the 15.0% FO group compared with the control group. The ω-3/ω-6 FA ratio was also improved ( P < 0.05) by supplementing basal diet with 15.0% FO. Our results suggest that trout fillets with enhanced content of ω-3 FA can be developed from trout raised in aquaculture systems fed diets supplemented with 15.0% FO. These fillets could be a basis to develop novel functional aquatic foods for some niche markets.     

Means of Delivering Recommended Levels of Long Chain n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Human Diets

ABSTRACT:  n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3PUFA) of marine origin have been shown to be essential for brain development and cognitive function. In addition to their essentiality, the scientific literature is full of evidence to suggest that regular consumption and/or dietary supplementation with long chain n-3PUFA give several health benefits including: prevention of cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, dyslexia, and depression. Long chain n-3PUFA intake in the Western countries, including Australia, has been shown to be inadequate. This is largely due to the fact that the Western populations do not eat seafood on a regular basis because of its cost and availability, and many individuals do not like the flavor/taste/odor of seafood. Foods fortified with long chain n-3PUFA could play an important role in meeting the demands for optimal health. Marine n-3PUFA are not likely to compete with saturated, monounsaturated, and n-6PUFA as a major source of dietary fat; however, increasing the intake of foods containing marine n-3PUFA is an important strategy for the prevention of chronic illnesses. Recent developments in food technology allow fortification of foods, such as bread, dairy products, eggs, pasta, biscuits, margarines, and other spreads, without the undesirable fish odor/taste and with reasonable shelf life. There is a need to increase the amount of long chain n-3PUFA consumed per serve and optimize their bioavailability. This article reviews the foods fortified with marine n-3PUFA and their role in meeting daily requirements, and highlights the need for further research in this important area of functional foods.     

二十二碳六烯酸对老年大鼠脑组织抗氧化和脂肪酸的影响

目的:研究二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)改善老年大鼠抗氧化的可能机制。方法:动物分为青年组(7月龄青年雄性大鼠)、老年组(20月龄雄性大鼠)、DHA低剂量组(灌喂20月龄雄性大鼠DHA 180mg/(kg.d)42d)、DHA高剂量组(灌喂20月龄雄性大鼠360mg/(kg.d)42d),处死大鼠后测定脑组织中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)活力、丙二醛(MDA)含量,然后用气相色谱-质谱联用分析法分析脑脂肪酸组成及含量,最后用薄层层析和磷钼酸法分析磷脂构成。结果:与老年大鼠相比,灌喂DHA的各组大鼠的脑中SOD、GSH-Px、CAT活性显著提高,同时灌喂DHA减少MDA的含量;对脑脂肪酸和磷脂的分析,表明灌喂DHA显著提高脑DHA含量,增加总n-3脂肪酸/总n-6脂肪酸和DHA/AA(二十碳四烯酸)的比率,显著降低AA含量,还能显著提高磷脂酰乙醇胺、磷脂酰胆碱、磷脂酰肌醇、磷脂酰丝氨酸及神经鞘磷脂的含量。结论:DHA显著提高自然衰老大鼠的脑组织抗氧化能力,其机制可能与改变脑脂肪酸组成有关。     

Fortification of Foods with Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

A $600 million nutritional supplements market growing at 30% every year attests to consumer awareness of, and interests in, health benefits attributed to these supplements. For over 80 years the importance of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) consumption for human health has been established. The FDA recently approved the use of ω-3 PUFAs in supplements. Additionally, the market for ω-3 PUFA ingredients grew by 24.3% last year, which affirms their popularity and public awareness of their benefits. PUFAs are essential for normal human growth; however, only minor quantities of the beneficial ω-3 PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are synthesized by human metabolism. Rather PUFAs are obtained via dietary or nutritional supplementation and modified into other beneficial metabolites. A vast literature base is available on the health benefits and biological roles of ω-3 PUFAs and their metabolism; however, information on their dietary sources and palatability of foods incorporated with ω-3 PUFAs is limited. DHA and EPA are added to many foods that are commercially available, such as infant and pet formulae, and they are also supplemented in animal feed to incorporate them in consumer dairy, meat, and poultry products. The chief sources of EPA and DHA are fish oils or purified preparations from microalgae, which when added to foods, impart a fishy flavor that is considered unacceptable. This fishy flavor is completely eliminated by extensively purifying preparations of n-3 PUFA sources. While n-3 PUFA lipid autoxidation is considered the main cause of fishy flavor, the individual oxidation products identified thus far, such as unsaturated carbonyls, do not appear to contribute to fishy flavor or odor. Alternatively, various compound classes such as free fatty acids and volatile sulfur compounds are known to impart fishy flavor to foods. Identification of the causative compounds to reduce and eventually eliminate fishy flavor is important for consumer acceptance of PUFA-fortified foods.

[Supplementary materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition for the following free supplemental files: Additional text, tables, and figures.]     

Seasonal Variation in Proximate Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Grey Triggerfish (Balistes capriscus) Captured Along the Coast of Portugal

Proximate composition (ash, moisture, total protein, and fat contents) and fatty acid profile of Balistes capriscus (grey triggerfish) were assessed over a 6‐months period (April to September, 2011) in animals captured along the coast of Peniche (Portugal). High protein (18.9% to 21.4%) and low lipid (0.5% to 0.8%) contents were determined. The highest lipid level was found in June‐captured animals. High proportions of n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n‐3 PUFA) were observed (53.87 ± 2.00%) together with substantial quantities of oleic acid (27.58 ± 1.09%) and palmitic acid (16.52 ± 0.93%). Docosahexaenoic acid accounted for 77% of the total PUFA and was 7 times more abundant than eicosapentaenoic acid, and the n‐3/n‐6 ratio was 7.2. Gender did not influence lipid levels and the fatty acid profile, but seasonal variations were observed for PUFA and monounsaturated fatty acid contents. Overall, the nutritional properties of this underexploited species may be comparable to those of other lean fish species with higher economic value.     

Effect of Dietary Partial Hydrolysate of Phospholipids,Rich in Docosahexaenoic Acid‐Bound Lysophospholipids,on Lipid and Fatty Acid Composition in Rat Serum and Liver

Lysophospholipids have been recognized as potent biologically active lipid mediators. However, attention has not been paid to the health benefits of dietary partial hydrolysate of phospholipids (PH‐PL), which is rich in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)‐bound lysophospholipids. In this study, the effects of PH‐PL on serum and liver lipid profiles of rats upon administration of PH‐PL are demonstrated in comparison to those of fish oil (FO), which comprises eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA‐bound triglyceride (TG). PH‐PL containing EPA and DHA was prepared via enzymatic modification of squid (Todarodes pacificus) meal that is rich in phospholipids. Male Wistar rats were fed a basal diet containing soybean oil alone (7%), FO, and PH‐PL. The FO and PH‐PL diets had similar EPA and DHA contents. After the rats had been fed their respective diets for 28 d, their serum and liver lipid contents, fecal lipid excretion, and hepatic gene expression level were measured. The results demonstrated that compared with the soybean oil diet alone, the PH‐PL diet decreased serum and liver TG contents partially because of the enhancement of liver acyl‐CoA oxidase activity and suppression of liver fatty acid synthase activity. In addition, compared with the soybean oil diet, the PH‐PL group exhibited lower serum cholesterol content at least in part because of the reduction of hepatic 3‐hydroxy‐3‐methylglutaryl‐CoA reductase mRNA expression level. We found that dietary administration of EPA and DHA containing PH‐PL has a hypolipidemic effect that may help prevent the development lifestyle‐related diseases.     

脂肪酸脱氢酶研究进展

脂肪酸脱氢酶（Fatty Acid Desaturases）是多不饱和脂肪酸（Polyunsaturated Fattyacids，PUFAs）合成途径关键酶，催化脂肪酸链上特定位置形成双键。PUFAs参与构成生物膜，对生物膜的形成和物理性质、膜脂中脂肪酸的组成与不饱和度等方面起主要调节作用。脂肪酸脱氢酶可分为Acyl—CoA、Acyl—lipid和Acyl—ACP3类，又可分为可溶性脱氢酶和膜结合脱氢酶，其中膜结合脱氢酶又有羧基定向脱氢酶和甲基定向脱氢酶之分。脂肪酸脱氢酶结构上都有3个组氨酸保守区，羧基定向脱氢酶N端还有一个类似Cyt b5的血红素结合区。近年来脂肪酸脱氢酶的相关研究成为热点，本文概述了几种主要脂肪酸脱氢酶的分子生物学研究情况。其中，利用基因工程手段来获得高产PUFAs产量的工程菌株或油料作物来生产特定PUFAs有极大应用前景。     

Physical and Oxidative Stabilization of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Surimi Gels

ABSTRACT: The objective of the study was to compare the dispersion and oxidative stability of omega-3 fatty acid oil in high- and low-quality surimi gels during 4-mo refrigerated and frozen storage. Low-quality surimi was prepared by subjecting Alaska pollock surimi to 7 freeze–thaw cycles. Surimi gels were prepared with 4% modified starch, 2% salt, and 0.5% or 1% algal DHA or concentrated fish EPA-DHA oil, and stored at −18 or 3 °C for 4 mo after being vacuumed packed and pasteurized. The effect of surimi gel properties on oil dispersion was examined using light microscopy equipped with image process software. The extent of lipid oxidation was monitored by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), peroxide value (PV), and fatty acid methly esters (DHA and EPA). Very fine and uniform oil dispersion was observed in the high-quality surimi gel with the average droplet size of 12.37 μm² and dispersion of 1.73 × 10⁻³ droplets/μm² compared to 84.32 μm² and 0.57 × 10⁻³ droplets/μm² in the low-quality gel. Throughout the 4 mo storage, TBARS and PV of high-quality surimi gel were significantly (P < 0.05) lower than those of low-quality surimi gel. The decreases in omega-3 fatty acids in the high-quality surimi gels were lower than those in the low-quality surimi gels under both storage conditions. Results confirm that a highly cohesive gel matrix is required to have a fine dispersion and oxidative stability of omega-3 fatty acids in the surimi gel system. Practical Application: Uniform dispersion and oxidative stability of omega-3 fatty acid oil can be achieved in the highly cohesive surimi gel system without use of antioxidants. This suggests that surimi can be used as a protein-based carrier in developing high omega-3 fatty acids-containing seafood products.     

Effects of Trans and Conjugated LC N‐3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Lipid Composition and Abdominal Fat Weight in Rats

ABSTRACT: Trans and conjugated fatty acids may exhibit either beneficial or detrimental bioactive effects depending on their metabolic properties. This study was conducted to elucidate if isomerization and conjugation of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) demonstrate more favorable bioactivity on lipid metabolism compared to unmodified EPA and DHA. The effects of dietary intake of trans and conjugated forms of EPA and DHA on lipid metabolism were evaluated in animal trials and compared to a control group fed soybean oil. None of the experimental diets showed significant differences from the control in terms of body weight; however, the white adipose tissue weight of rodents fed trans DHA, conjugated EPA (CEPA), and conjugated DHA (CDHA) was significantly lower than the control. Triacylglycerol levels in plasma were significantly decreased in groups fed trans DHA (17.2 mg/dL) and CDHA (31.9 mg/dL) relative to the control (51.3 mg/dL). The total cholesterol concentrations were significantly lower than the control (68.0 mg/dL) in all experimental groups (47.3 to 53.7 mg/dL) except CEPA (58.3 mg/dL). Fatty acid compositions of lipids extracted from rodent livers were influenced by the dietary fatty acid profiles, with all groups showing higher concentrations of stearic acid and lower levels of linoleic acid compared to the control. Rodents fed trans DHA did not have detectable levels of these fatty acid isomers in their livers, suggesting either quick metabolism or a difficulty with bio‐absorption.     

Effect of Dietary Starch or Micro Algae Supplementation on Rumen Fermentation and Milk Fatty Acid Composition of Dairy Cows

Two experiments with rumen-fistulated dairy cows were conducted to evaluate the effects of feeding docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6 n-3)-enriched diets or diets provoking a decreased rumen pH on milk fatty acid composition. In the first experiment, dietary treatments were tested during 21-d experimental periods in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Diets included a control diet, a starch-rich diet, a bicarbonate-buffered starch-rich diet, and a diet supplemented with DHA-enriched micro algae [Schizochytrium sp., 43.0 g/kg of dry matter intake (DMI)]. Algae were supplemented directly through the rumen fistula. The total mixed ration consisted of grass silage, corn silage, soybean meal, and a standard or glucogenic concentrate. The glucogenic and buffered glucogenic diet had no effect on rumen fermentation and milk fatty acid composition because, unexpectedly, no reduced rumen pH was detected. The algae diet had no effect on rumen pH but provoked decreased butyrate and increased isovalerate molar proportions in the rumen. In addition, algae supplementation affected rumen biohydrogenation of linoleic and linolenic acid as reflected in the modified milk fatty acid composition toward increased conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) cis-9 trans-11, CLA trans-9 cis-11, C18:1 trans-10, C18:1 trans-11, and C22:6 n-3 concentrations. Concomitantly, on average, a 45% decrease in DMI and milk yield was observed. Based on these drastic and impractical results, a second animal experiment was performed for 20 d in which 9.35 g/kg of total DMI of algae were incorporated in the concentrate and supplemented to 3 rumen-fistulated cows. Algae concentrate feeding increased rumen pH, which was associated with decreased rumen short-chain fatty acid concentrations. Moreover, a different shift in rumen short-chain fatty acid proportions was observed compared with the first experiment because molar proportions of butyrate, isobutyrate, and isovalerate increased, whereas acetate molar proportion decreased. The milk fatty acid profile changed as in experiment 1. However, the decrease in DMI and milk yield was less pronounced (on average 10%) at this algae supplementation level, whereas milk fat percentage decreased from 47.9 to 22.0 g/kg of milk after algae treatment. In conclusion, an algae supplementation level of about 10 g/kg of DMI proved effective to reduce the milk fat content and to modify the milk fatty acid composition toward increased CLA cis-9 trans-11, C18:1 trans, and DHA concentrations.     

Long Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acid Levels in Loin Muscle from Transgenic (fat-1 gene) Pigs and Effects on Lipid Oxidation During Storage

Studies suggest a diet rich in long chain omega-3 fatty acids (LCn3) can promote visual, neural and vascular health. Pork muscle typically has small amounts of LCn3. A transgenic technology involving the fat-1 gene has been developed to increase LCn3 in various pig tissues; however, pork loin muscle has not been examined to date. We have determined that the LCn3 content in loin muscle (Longissimus) from fat-1 pigs was 1.59–2.24 g/100 g lipid compared to 0.34–0.38 g/100 g lipid in control samples. Lipid oxidation products were measured in ground and salted loin muscle from control and fat-1 pigs during storage at ?4°C. There was no clear trend as to whether the fat-1 gene technology increased or decreased oxidative stability of the muscle during storage based on lipid peroxide and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values. There were a greater number of volatiles detected in stored loin from fat-1 pigs compared to control. Volatiles common to control and fat-1 pigs were elevated in stored loin from fat-1 pigs. This is the first report indicating that the use of fat-1 transgenic technology significantly increases the amount of desirable LCn3 in pork loin muscle.     

Trans Fatty Acid Contents in Selected Dietary Fats in the Estonian Market

In response to public concern, this study assessed the fatty acid (FA) composition of blended spreads, margarines and shortenings in the Estonian retail market in 2011. Special attention was paid to the trans fatty acids (TFA) composition. The changes in these characteristics of selected dietary fats in the market over recent years are also presented. Twenty-six edible fat brands, available in the Estonian retail market in 2011, were purchased and FA compositions were analyzed by chromatography. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) were the dominant group of FAs for all blended spreads (49.6 to 65.8%), and for the majority of shortenings (from 21.1 to 54.6%). Cis monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) were the dominant group of FAs for the majority of margarines, ranging from 25.3% to 50.5%. The total TFA for blended spreads varied from 1.18% to 9.08%, for margarines from 0.04% to 34.96% and for shortenings from 0.14% to 39.50%. Octadecenoic (C18:1) isomers were the main TFA found. Compared to 2008/2009, the industrially produced TFA (IP-TFA) content in several of the dietary fat brands was much reduced in 2011. This voluntary reformulation was probably a response to consumer demand associated with a public health campaign directed against IP-TFA in Estonian foods, and were mainly achieved by replacing TFA with SFA C12:0-C16:0. Practical Application: Present paper is directed toward public health related institutions and food industries producing foods with potentially high contents of trans fatty acids (TFA). According to the public concern TFA content in domestic blended spreads has declined significantly over the past 3 y in Estonia. The reduction in the TFA content was achieved by replacing TFA with saturated fatty acids (SFA) (C12:0-C16:0). To shift food composition toward healthier product formulations, mandatory labeling of the sum of IP-TFA and SFA (C12:0-C16:0) was recommended.