The efficiency of a hypoid axle—a thermally coupled lubrication model

The final drive unit in road vehicles, such as medium and heavy trucks, and four-wheel-drive and rear-wheel-drive passenger cars, usually consists of a hypoid or spiral bevel geared transmission and differential, housed in a self-contained, dip-lubricated axle. Such units are subjected to very variable duty—including extreme combinations of speed, gradient, applied torque and external temperature—and are typically cooled by natural and forced convection on the exterior surface. On the other hand, there are appreciable internal power losses due to gear friction and churning and to bearing and seal losses. These losses are highly dependent upon the lubrication regime of the internal components and hence to the thermal behaviour of the entire axle.In the present paper, we describe a thermally coupled model of axle lubrication. The torque and speed demand is first found from a specified duty (“drive cycle”) which includes terrain as well as speed-versus-time and external temperature data. The evolution of sump oil and component temperatures is followed, and increments of energy loss evaluated in each time-step. Elastohydrodynamic film thickness is determined for the hypoid gear set, using a development of Buckingham's method, and friction losses calculated using a simple oil rheological model based on tribometer (MTM) testing. Churning, seal and bearing (speed-dependent) losses are found using empirical algorithms. Energy losses over complete drive cycles for different lubricants are derived, enabling the relative fuel economy for different oils to be evaluated.Results show that (i) the bulk temperature rise of the axle is highly dependent on the specified vehicle duty and (ii) the efficiency can be strongly influenced by choices available to the lubricant formulator. Taken together, these findings suggest that specialist axle lubricant formulations for particular vehicle types and applications will be attractive as a route to optimum fuel economy.     

基于动态损失功率的行星齿轮传动效率计算

行星齿轮传动的动态损失功率由啮合损失、风阻损失及轴承损失三部分组成。通过对行星齿轮传动进行动态分析 ,获得了各构件的动态运动规律及其动载荷 ,计算了行星齿轮传动的动态损失功率。在此基础上 ,提出了基于动态损失功率的行星齿轮传动的计算方法 ,并将所求得的效率称为动态效率。用本文方法对某航空行星齿轮传动的动态效率进行了计算 ,通过与常规的效率计算方法所得结果以及实验数据的比较 ,得出了用本文方法所计算的效率结果更符合行星齿轮传动实际情况的结论。     

基于流体动力学的斜齿轮副搅油功率损失分析

在高速工况下,搅油损失在总功率损失中占很大比重,研究齿轮搅油功率损失对于提高传动效率具有重要意义。提出一种基于流体动力学的能够计算斜齿轮副搅油功率损失的计算模型,该模型采用将斜齿轮沿接触线划分为若干个薄直齿轮的方法计算斜齿轮副的搅油损失;将齿轮副搅油功率损失分为周面搅油功率损失、端面搅油功率损失以及啮合区挤压功率损失三部分,分析浸油深度、转速、螺旋角、齿宽、模数对搅油损失的影响以及各部分搅油损失占总搅油损失的比重。结果表明：搅油损失随着浸油深度、转速、螺旋角、齿宽、模数的增大而增大,其中转速、齿宽和模数对搅油损失的影响较大,浸油深度和螺旋角对搅油损失的影响较小;啮合区挤压功率损失在整个搅油功率损失中占最大比重。     

考虑系统变形的电驱动桥齿轮啮合效率研究

传动效率是电驱动桥重要性能指标之一,实际使用条件下,由于齿轮、轴、轴承以及壳体等部件的负载变形,齿轮副之间存在啮合错位。为了准确预测电驱动桥传动系的啮合效率,提出了一种考虑系统变形的电驱动桥齿轮啮合效率计算方法。首先基于传动系等效啮合模型,计算不同载荷工况下传动系每个齿轮副之间的啮合错位量,采用考虑摩擦的齿轮加载接触分析方法(FLTCA)和混合润滑摩擦系数模型对齿轮副的齿面接触力和齿面摩擦系数分布进行计算,得到系统功率损失及啮合效率。然后,与商用有限元软件计算结果进行对比,验证了计算方法的准确性。最后,针对不同载荷工况和不同转速分析了考虑和不考虑系统变形的系统啮合效率,结果表明：随着转矩的增加,系统变形增大,齿轮副之间的错位量增加,导致齿轮副之间发生偏载,齿面摩擦系数增加,系统啮合效率呈下降趋势。     

Power losses at low speed in a gearbox lubricated with wind turbine gear oils with special focus on churning losses

In this study gear oils were tested for power loss behaviour in a two stage multiplying gearbox, on a back-to-back test rig with recirculating power. The tests were performed at low input speeds and high input torques with oil sump temperature set free.A power loss model simulating the power loss mechanisms was implemented to evaluate gear power losses, but failed to correctly describe the gear churning.Two lubricant flow regimes were identified, which are related to the nature of the fluid circulation, as well as with the gearbox case. A calibration method for the gear churning loss is proposed based on these results and a method to identify the transition between the fluid flow regimes inside the gearbox.     

调磁环材料性能对永磁齿轮损耗的影响研究

磁场调制型永磁齿轮作为一种新型永磁变速装置,易产生较大磁场损耗,降低永磁齿轮工作效率,限制其传递能力的进一步提升。提出整体成型动力传动式调磁环提高了扭矩传动能力,建立调磁环三维模型开展了强度、刚度和损耗计算,并结合永磁齿轮性能测试分析了调磁环骨架材料和调磁极片材料的损耗,研究三种不同调磁环承载骨架材料参数对永磁齿轮损耗和效率的影响,对永磁齿轮参数进行优化并确定最优扭矩骨架承载材料。结果表明,特种工程塑料调磁环骨架材料能大幅降低永磁齿轮损耗,有效提升传动效率,永磁齿轮实测传动效率可达93.8%。     

输入转矩对驱动桥系统动力学特性的影响

在驱动桥系统中,滚子轴承是连接轴系与壳体的关键部件,其刚度具有各向耦合性和非线性特性,且与输入转矩有关。为准确高效地分析输入转矩对驱动桥系统动力学特性的影响,基于非线性轴承理论、有限元法和模态综合方法,建立包含主减速器总成、差速器总成、轮毂总成和桥壳等部件的完整驱动桥系统动力学分析模型,根据输入转矩大小的不同,定义轻载、中载和重载三种典型工况,分别计算各工况下的非线性轴承刚度,分析轴承刚度随输入转矩大小变化的特点,对驱动桥系统进行单位谐波传动误差激励下的动力学分析,研究输入转矩对驱动桥系统动力学特性的影响,分析不同工况下准双曲面齿轮动态啮合力的频响特性。计算结果表明,驱动桥系统动力学特性随输入转矩大小变化具有一定规律,能有效指导驱动桥系统的减振降噪设计,避开危险工况。     

Fuel economy of multigrade gear lubricants

A light‐duty axle efficiency test for evaluating gear lubricants for their fuel economy performance is described. Data collected for an internal reference oil highlight the repeatability of the test with different axles. Comparisons between single‐grade SAE 90 and multigrade gear lubricants were made under a variety of pinion torques and speeds to simulate highway and city driving conditions. Lubricant rheology and its importance in maintaining film strength for adequate bearing and gear lubrication for optimum torque efficiency and axle temperature are discussed.     

Modeling and experimental evaluation of torque loss in turbine test rig for accurate turbine performance evaluation

The performance of a turbine is evaluated through a turbine rig test by measuring the torque or power generated from the test turbine using a dynamometer or torque sensor installed in the test rig. Highly precise assessment requires accurate measurement of the torque or power. However, an intrinsic difficulty exists such that not all power generated by the turbine is measured by the dynamometer or torque sensor. A small portion of power generated from the test turbine is dissipated between the test turbine and torque sensor as bearing and windage losses. The dissipated energy is called mechanical loss of test rig. Therefore, measuring the mechanical loss of the test rig is necessary for the accurate evaluation of the turbine performance. The present paper classifies mechanical loss into bearing, disk windage, and extra windage losses. Spin-down tests are performed in a 1-stage axial turbine test rig to evaluate each loss. The total mechanical loss amounts to 0.78% to 1.4% of energy generated at the turbine. Bearing loss is dominant. Mechanical loss is dependent on and increases with decreasing bearing temperature.     

金属带无级变速器带-带轮的机械损失

本文研究金属带无级变速器带-带轮的机械损失。根据功率流观点把全部功率损失归因于转矩损失，开发了一个耦合图模型。由实验求得功率损失模型系数。由仿真和实验可以看到，稳态带-带轮损失取决于管压，输入转矩和转速。而瞬态损失则取决于转速，换档速度和惯性矩。     

Modal and stress analysis of gear train design in portal axle using finite element modeling and simulation

The portal axle is a gearbox that is specially designed for off-road driving conditions. It is installed between the wheel and the axle shaft to give higher ground clearance to the vehicle. The modeling and simulation of spur gears in portal axle is important to predict the actual motion behavior. However, gear train design in portal axle is difficult to study comprehensively due to their relatively low cost and short product life cycle. In this study, modal analysis of portal axle is simulated using finite element method (FEM). Modal analysis is simulated on three different combinations of gear train system commonly designed for portal axle. The three gear trains being analyzed are gear train without idler gear, one idler gear and two idler gears. FEM static stress analysis is also simulated on three different gear trains to study the gear teeth bending stress and contact stress behavior of the gear trains in different angular positions from 0° to 18°. The single and double pair gear teeth contact are also considered. This methodology serves as a novel approach for gear train design evaluation, and the study of gear stress behavior in gear train which is needed in the small workshop scale industries.     

Torque loss in a gearbox lubricated with wind turbine gear oils

In this study, four different fully formulated ISO VG 320 wind turbine gear oils were select: a mineral oil‐based, a polyalphaolefin‐based, an ester‐based and a polyalkyleneglycol‐based fluids. Their physical properties (viscosity, thermoviscosity, piezoviscosity etc.) were characterised for a wide range of operating temperatures. A two‐stage multiplying gearbox, with helical gears, was selected to evaluate the influence of the wind turbine gear oil formulation on torque loss with the gearbox operating at low speed (130–230 rpm) and high torque (500–1000 Nm). The results obtained showed that each wind turbine gear oil formulation generated very different torque losses, evacuated heat flows and operating temperatures, with differences above 20 °C under the most severe operating conditions. A numerical model was developed, simulating all power loss mechanisms inside the gearbox, in particular the churning and friction losses. The coefficients of friction, between gear teeth and between rolling elements and bearing raceways, were calculated for all the tested oils. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Improvement of Lubrication Performance in External Gear Machines through Micro-surface Wedged Gears

This article demonstrates how a properly designed micro-surface linear wedge added to the lateral surfaces of the gear teeth can improve the lubricating ability of external gear machines (EGMs), resulting in lower power losses and chance of wear during their operation. The approach of study is based on the use of a fluid structure interaction (FSI) model for the analysis of the lateral lubricating gaps developed in the authors' research team. Such a model is used to determine the best design of the wedged gear by considering the overall axial balance problem of pressure compensated EGMs for high-pressure applications. The article shows the numerical predictions along with the experimental verifications of the advantages offered by the proposed solution in terms of torque loss reduction for a particular reference pump.     

高速行星齿轮传动的动态效率研究

对高速行星齿轮传动的动态分析 ,获得各构件的动态运动规律及其动载荷。在此基础上 ,计算了齿轮的动态啮合损失 ,风阻损失及轴承损失 ,提出了动态效率的概念及其计算方法。对某航空行星齿轮传动的动态效率进行了计算 ,通过与常规的效率计算方法所得结果以及实验数据的比较 ,得出了本文的动态效率计算结果更符合行星齿轮传动实际情况的结论     

行星齿轮系统的运动分析及动力学仿真

应用行星轮系的图画表示法与基本回路方法,对行星齿轮变速器进行了运动分析与效率计算;采用键合图理论,建立了系统的动态模型,并进行了动力学仿真,仿真结果具有明显的规律性,从而为行星传动技术的研究提供一种正确的理论分析方法。     

Calculation of sliding power loss in spur gear contacts

An engineering-level calculation model for sliding power loss in spur gear contacts is presented. Teeth contact through the line of action is modelled as a constantly changing roller contact whose radius, speed, and load can be calculated from the gear geometry under the given operating conditions. The gear mesh cycle is approximated by a large number of elastohydrodynamic contacts. A constant film thickness and a Hertzian pressure distribution are assumed in each contact. The model includes non-Newtonian lubricant behaviour together with temperature and mixed lubrication effects in contact. The numerical solver is reasonably fast in evaluating effectively the sliding power loss dependence on the essential gear and lubricant parameters. The features and behaviour trends of the calculated sliding power losses have a close similarity with published results obtained from measurements and experiment-based power loss models with mineral oil. The limiting shear stress of the lubricant is observed to have an essential role in the power loss behaviour especially at high loads.     

Influence of Lubricants on Power Loss of Cylindrical Gears©

The total power loss of gears was measured in a back-to-back gear test rig. Test equipment, measuring principle and evaluation of the data are described. The influence of different lubricant type, viscosity and temperature on mesh and churning losses was investigated. The churning losses depended mainly on the viscosity of the lubricant and on the operating conditions, not on the lubricant type. The mesh power loss depended mainly on the type of lubricant, not on viscosity, temperature, or oil additives.

Churning losses can be reduced by using low viscosity lubricants. Mesh power loss can be reduced by as much as 50 percent of the power loss of mineral oils by using polyglycol-type lubricants. In wide application ranges, viscosity and oil additives do not influence mesh power loss. An experimentally-based equation for the coefficient of friction in the gear mesh is given. Earlier derived equations for the mesh power loss of different gear geometry were confirmed.     

储能/姿控一体化飞轮能耗试验研究

给出了储能/姿控一体化飞轮在高速运转下能量损耗测试原理及方法,建立了飞轮能耗试验系统,进行了能耗试验,分析了飞轮能耗的组成及其影响因素,在试验的基础上,给出了降低飞轮系统能耗的方法。飞轮能耗包括机械损耗、风阻损耗及电损耗,其中比重最大的部分为轴承摩擦导致的机械损耗。提高真空度可以有效降低风阻损耗及电损耗,但机械损耗不受影响,机械损耗随转速升高而增大。在10 000 r/min以下飞轮能耗较低,飞轮具有较好的性能,当转速高于10 000 r/min后机械损耗急剧上升,需要采用磁轴承支撑来降低机械损耗。     

高速弧齿圆柱齿轮风阻功率损失研究

齿轮高速运行时,风阻功率损失是导致传动效率低的主要因素之一。基于计算流体动力学(Computational fluid dynamics,CFD)技术建立了弧齿圆柱齿轮周围空气流域模型并进行数字孪生,得出弧齿圆柱齿轮周围空气流域内的速度矢量图及风阻损失功率。结果表明,弧齿圆柱齿轮周围设置挡板可有效减小风阻功率的损失,轴向挡板间距越小,弧齿圆柱齿轮的风阻功率损失越小。轴向挡板间隙为2 mm时的风阻功率损失相比于轴向挡板间隙为10 mm时的风阻功率损失减小27.80%。而对于径向挡板来说,并不是间隙越小弧齿圆柱齿轮的风阻功率损失越小。不同齿形的齿轮在相同条件下风阻功率损失不同,同等条件下对比发现,压力角为25°的直齿轮相比于标准斜齿轮的风阻功率损失减小了23.84%。     

行星轮系传动效率与自锁分析的新方法

应用轮系的复铰图画表示法与基本回路方法,以2K-H轮系为例进行系统化的传动比、传动效率与自锁的分析,以作为2K-H轮系分析与设计的依据。首先,导入复铰运动链图画表示法,以有效地表示2K-H轮系;接着,以此图画表示法与基本回路方法推导在各种运动情况下2K-H轮系的传动比与传动效率方程式:最后,讨论了2K-H轮系传动效率与自锁的关系。