New tools to assess toxicity, bioaccessibility and uptake of chemical contaminants in meat and seafood

Meat and seafood chemical contaminants can be very dangerous for human health. The way in which food chemical contaminants are currently controlled is not optimal as the food cooking, processing and eating habits are generally not considered by authorities. The current review discusses the available information related to the toxicity of the most relevant meat and seafood chemical contaminants, their bioaccessibility after cooking or processing, and the implications for human health. In addition, the current in vivo toxicity and alternative tests carried out for testing the effects of food chemical contaminants are illustrated, as well as new detection tools. The use of non-carcinogenic functional cell models, of alternative animal models like zebrafish embryos, and a toxicogenomic approach seem to be the most promising strategy for the toxicity assessment of food chemical contaminants.     

Acceptable daily intake and the regulation of intense sweeteners.

At the present time there are four intense sweeteners that are available in a number of countries: acesulfame-K, aspartame, cyclamate and saccharin. Extensive toxicity databases are available on each sweetener and these have been assessed by both national and international regulatory authorities. This review considers briefly the critical toxicity of each sweetener that is the basis for establishing the no adverse effect level in animal studies. The calculation of an acceptable daily intake (ADI) for human intake employs a large safety factor applied to the no-effect level. The magnitude of the safety factor for each sweetener is discussed in relation to the ADI values recommended by the Scientific Committee for Food in 1985.     

Microplastics in coastal areas and seafood: implications for food safety

Microplastics have become ubiquitous in the marine environment. Microplastics have been detected in many coastal environments and species, including commercial seafood. This triggers concern about potential economic impacts and the risks of dietary exposure, especially for coastal communities. However, data regarding the levels of microplastics in coastal seafood and their toxicological effects are still limited. Accordingly, the dietary risk is still poorly explored. This review summarizes and discusses recent scientific findings on (i) the presence of microplastics in coastal waters, (ii) the occurrence of microplastics in coastal seafood and the likelihood of trophic transfer, and (iii) the effects of microplastics on coastal fish and shellfish species. Human toxicity data are also reviewed, but the risks for human health are difficult to determine due to limited data. Based on available worldwide data, the estimation of microplastics intake through seafood consumption shows a huge variation. Additionally, a lack of standardized analytical methods complicates the comparison of results between studies and therefore seriously affects the reliability of risk assessments. It is concluded that more exposure and toxicity data are needed properly to assess human health risks of microplastics in coastal seafood, and the lack of data currently impede the derivation of a risk-based food safety standard. The pros and cons of an interim solution, i.e. setting a provisional action level, are being discussed.     

甜菊糖苷的安全性研究进展

本文全面介绍了甜菊糖苷及其代谢物甜菊醇在生化、毒理学方面的研究进展，认为除了质量规格资料尚显不足之外，大量动物实验未发现甜菊糖苷的急性、短期及遗传毒性，无致癌、促癌作用，对生长繁殖、胎鼠发育亦无明显影响，而且在南美、日本等地有长期的食用传统，是一种较为安全的天然甜味剂。     

全氟/多氟烷基化合物的毒理学研究进展及新型替代物健康危害

全氟/多氟烷基化合物（per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances,PFASs）因有优良的理化特性,在当前工业生产领域具有无可替代的地位,在世界各地被广泛使用,但由于其具有极强的生物蓄积性和环境持久性,进入环境后不易降解,会对人体健康造成不可忽视的伤害,包括神经、免疫、内分泌、生殖发育、肝肾毒性,因此受到世界各国的重视和严格的管控。传统PFASs的使用受限导致替代物被大量开发,近几年在环境和生物体内检测到越来越多的新型替代物,同时它们表现出比传统PFASs更强的生物毒性,但目前依然缺乏对于PFASs替代物及前体的毒性研究和暴露评估数据。本文对近五年传统PFASs的毒理学研究结果进行综述,并对几种检测频率较高的替代物及前体的人体接触水平及对健康的影响进行总结,为PFASs新型替代物的进一步研究和监管措施提供科学依据。     

Measurement of un-ionized ammonia in complex mixtures

The toxicity of un-ionized ammonia, NH3 (aq), in anaerobic digestion of high-nitrogen wastes has been researched extensively. Previous estimates of NH3 (aq) concentration have relied on a simple speciation approach, based only on the acid dissociation constant and the sample pH and total ammonia concentration. The distinction between concentration and chemical activity has generally not been made, despite the potential for resulting errors in the calculation of NH3 (aq) concentration, and the greater applicability of activity to toxicity work. The currently accepted approach for estimating NH3 (aq) concentration is based on assumptions that are not valid in digested animal manure or other concentrated wastes. This work presents an approach for directly measuring NH3 (aq) activity in complex mixtures using gaseous/aqueous equilibrium across microporous tubing. Application of this approach to anaerobic digester samples confirms that the currently accepted approach is not accurate; it overestimated NH3 (aq) activity in unaltered samples by 45-200%. Previous work on the toxicity of ammonia to methanogenesis has probably overestimated the tolerance of consortia to NH3 (aq), due to overestimation of concentrations. The method introduced here is expected to be useful in a range of research on ammonia toxicity and volatilization.     

Resveratrol bioavailability and toxicity in humans

Numerous data are now available on the beneficial properties of the polyphenolic compound resveratrol including its anti‐inflammatory and antitumor effects. However, few studies have been performed with resveratrol in humans, and the results of these studies appear fragmentary and sometimes contradictory due to variations in conditions of administration, protocols and methods of assessment. This review article presents the results of recent studies investigating the pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and toxicity of resveratrol in humans. Resveratrol is well absorbed, rapidly metabolized, mainly into sulfo and glucuronides conjugates which are eliminated in urine. Resveratrol seems to be well tolerated and no marked toxicity was reported. These data are important in the context of human efficacy studies, and they provide further support for the use of resveratrol as a pharmacological drug in human medicine.     

The metabolisable energy value of foods

Methods for calculating the Metabolisable Energy (ME) of foods and diets are reviewed in the light of the current interest in diets high in dietary fibre. A new equation is proposed for the calculation of ME, taking into account the dietary fibre content of foods and its effects on the digestibility of proximate sources of energy. The equation has been tested against values for the ME of various diets determined by balance studies in human subjects, and gives results which agree within 3%. This agreement is much closer than that obtained with the other available methods for calculating ME, including those currently in use.     

Predicted and observed growth and toxigenesis by Clostridium botulinum type E in vacuum-packaged fishery product challenge tests.

The observed growth and toxigenesis by Clostridium botulinum type E in vacuum-packaged unprocessed, raw pickled and cold-smoked rainbow trout stored at slightly abusive temperatures were compared to predictions generated by two currently available predictive microbiological programs, Food MicroModel and Pathogen Modelling Program. In unprocessed fish there was only a 2 log increase in type E cell count at the time the toxicity first occurred after 2 weeks storage at 8 degrees C. Neither growth or toxin production was observed in raw pickled fish with a NaCl concentration of 6.7% (w/v) during 6 weeks storage at 6 degrees C. In cold-smoked fish with a NaCl level of 3.2% (w/v) toxic samples were detected after 3 and 4 weeks storage at 8 degrees C and 4 degrees C, respectively, without any increase in type E count. Both models were hampered by limitations to controlling environmental factors set by the programs which also had an adverse effect on the reliability of predictions. Most predictions generated by the models were inconsistent with the results observed in the challenge studies. In certain situations, the models seemed to be 'fail-safe', in that, the growth rate predicted from the model was faster or a predicted time to toxicity shorter than that which actually occurred in the food. In other situations, the predictions showed the product to be safe when it was not. The results demonstrate the need for further development and rigorous validation of the models before they are accepted for wider use by inspecting officials and the food industry.     

Toxins of cyanobacteria

Blue-green algae are found in lakes, ponds, rivers and brackish waters throughout the world. In case of excessive growth such as bloom formation, these bacteria can produce inherent toxins in quantities causing toxicity in mammals, including humans. These cyanotoxins include cyclic peptides and alkaloids. Among the cyclic peptides are the microcystins and the nodularins. The alkaloids include anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(S), cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins (STXs), aplysiatoxins and lyngbyatoxin. Both biological and chemical methods are used to determine cyanotoxins. Bioassays and biochemical assays are nonspecific, so they can only be used as screening methods. HPLC has some good prospects. For the subsequent detection of these toxins different detectors may be used, ranging from simple UV-spectrometry via fluorescence detection to various types of MS. The main problem in the determination of cyanobacterial toxins is the lack of reference materials of all relevant toxins. In general, toxicity data on cyanotoxins are rather scarce. A majority of toxicity data are known to be of microcystin-LR. For nodularins, data from a few animal studies are available. For the alkaloids, limited toxicity data exist for anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin and STX. Risk assessment for acute exposure could be relevant for some types of exposure. Nevertheless, no acute reference doses have formally been derived thus far. For STX(s), many countries have established tolerance levels in bivalves, but these limits were set in view of STX(s) as biotoxins, accumulating in marine shellfish. Official regulations for other cyanotoxins have not been established, although some (provisional) guideline values have been derived for microcystins in drinking water by WHO and several countries.     

蚕丝和蜘蛛丝再生蛋白纤维研究进展

蚕丝和蜘蛛丝的特性优良,受到众多学者的青睐,并致力于通过人造的方法获得性能良好的蚕丝和蜘蛛丝再生蛋白纤维。但目前研究获得的再生蚕丝或蜘蛛丝并不理想。本文总结和对比了有关蚕丝和蜘蛛丝再生的研究,包括纺丝液的制备、湿法纺丝和静电纺丝的方法以及纺丝条件对纤维特性的影响等,并探讨了改善再生丝纤维性能的方法,最后阐述了再生丝纤维广阔的发展前景,期望能为今后人造蚕丝和蜘蛛丝提供有用的信息。     

基于群体感应的单增李斯特菌生物膜形成与控制研究进展

单增李斯特菌的生物膜结构可以赋予细菌对消毒剂更强的耐受性,这使得如何有效清除其生物膜成为了食品加工业的难题。群体感应与细菌生物膜的形成、毒力侵袭特性和应激响应等生理特性密切相关。因此,本文概述了单增李斯特菌生物膜的特性,重点从群体感应（呋喃糖基硼酸二酯系统和寡肽自诱导因子系统）角度阐述了单增李斯特菌生物膜的形成机制,并综述了当前控制单增李斯特菌生物膜形成的可行方法及植物提取物作为群体感应抑制剂的研究现状。以期为预防和控制单增李斯特菌生物膜的形成提供新思路。     

Toxicity studies of genetically modified plants: a review of the published literature

According to the information reported by the WHO, the genetically modified (GM) products that are currently on the international market have all passed risk assessments conducted by national authorities. These assessments have not indicated any risk to human health. In spite of this clear statement, it is quite amazing to note that the review articles published in international scientific journals during the current decade did not find, or the number was particularly small, references concerning human and animal toxicological/health risks studies on GM foods. In this paper, the scientific information concerning the potential toxicity of GM/transgenic plants using the Medline database is reviewed. Studies about the safety of the potential use of potatoes, corn, soybeans, rice, cucumber, tomatoes, sweet pepper, peas, and canola plants for food and feed were included. The number of references was surprisingly limited. Moreover, most published studies were not performed by the biotechnology companies that produce these products. This review can be concluded raising the following question: where is the scientific evidence showing that GM plants/food are toxicologically safe?     

植物源抗冻蛋白作用机制及其在食品中的应用

抗冻蛋白是一类具有热滞活性的蛋白质,它能够与冰晶吸附结合,降低溶液冰点,阻止冰晶生长,而且可以抑制冰晶再结晶现象。因其特殊的结构和功能,抗冻蛋白对延长冷冻食品的贮藏期和提高冷冻产品质量具有积极意义。本文简述了植物源抗冻蛋白的研究概况,综述植物源抗冻蛋白在食品加工方面的作用机理和分离纯化方法及在未来食品领域的应用,以期为植物源抗冻蛋白在食品冻藏中的应用提供理论参考。     

Potential interaction of Ginkgo biloba leaf with antiplatelet or anticoagulant drugs: what is the evidence?

Some writers hold the view that the combination of Ginkgo biloba with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs represents a serious health risk. Such concerns are largely based on the assumption that Ginkgo has clinically relevant antiplatelet activity, as well as accounts of bleeding episodes associated with Ginkgo consumption. To investigate whether these bleeding episodes have a pharmacodynamic, idiosyncratic or coincidental basis, a review of controlled clinical studies and case reports was undertaken. Results from controlled studies consistently indicate that Ginkgo does not significantly impact haemostasis nor adversely affect the safety of coadministered aspirin or warfarin. Most of these studies were undertaken using EGb 761, a well-defined extract of Ginkgo biloba. In contrast, EGb 761 has not generally been implicated in the case reports. In general, the quality of these case reports is low. Nevertheless, the possibility of an idiosyncratic bleeding event due to Ginkgo use cannot be excluded on the basis of the available information. However, there is scant information from case reports or controlled trials to support the suggestion that Ginkgo potentiates the effects of anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs. Such high-level safety concerns for this herb are deemed to be unsupported by the currently available evidence.     

热加工肉制品中杂环胺的分析检测技术研究进展

杂环胺是一类杂环芳香族化合物,是富含蛋白质的食物（如肉类和鱼类等）在高温和长时间烹饪时产生的。杂环胺具有强致癌性和致突变性,能在动物乳腺、结肠和肝脏等多个器官中引发肿瘤。长期食用含有杂环胺的食物将对人体健康产生极大危害,增加患癌风险。因此,热加工肉制品中杂环胺的监控和检测尤为必要。本文简述杂环胺的种类、理化性质、毒性、形成和影响因素,重点综述热加工肉制品中杂环胺的分析检测方法,包括溶剂萃取、固相萃取、固相微萃取等样品前处理方法以及气相色谱、气相色谱-质谱、高效液相色谱、液相色谱-质谱等仪器检测方法,最后对热加工肉制品中杂环胺检测分析的发展趋势作出展望。     

Two-Compartment Toxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic Model to Predict Metal Toxicity in Daphnia magna

Relating the toxicity of metals to their internal concentration is difficult due to complicated detoxification processes within organisms. Only the metabolically available metals are potentially toxic to organisms, while metals in the detoxified form are toxicologically irrelevant. Accordingly, we developed a two-compartment toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic model for metals in a freshwater cladoceran, Daphnia magna. The toxicokinetics simulated the bioaccumulation processes, while the toxicodynamics quantitatively described the corresponding processes of toxicity development. Model parameters were estimated for D. magna and three metals, i.e., cadmium, zinc, and mercury, by fitting the literature data on metal bioaccumulation and toxicity. A range of crucial information for toxicity prediction can be readily derived from the model, including detoxification rate, no-effect concentration, threshold influx rate for toxicity, and maximum duration without toxicity. This process-based model is flexible and can help improve ecological risk assessments for metals.     

An evaluation of the decision tree approach for assessing priorities for safety testing of food additives

In this publication we report an evaluation of the decision tree scheme of Cramer, Ford and Hall (1978) for assigning priorities for toxicity testing of chemicals. The original scheme has been modified to allow more chemical structures to be considered and to take into account recent advances in toxicology. The majority of the food additives permitted in either the UK, USA or Canada have been processed through the modified decision tree questionnaire and their classification compared with currently available chronic toxicity data. A large proportion of the additives (53/73) assigned to the lowest toxicity (I) class have a low order of chronic oral toxicity as do many of the compounds assigned to the moderate toxicity (II) class. Although the majority of the additives assigned to the highest toxicity (III) class are substantially more toxic than those in the lower toxicity classes, some relatively innocuous compounds reached this classification. In addition, a few toxic compounds were assigned to the lowest toxicity class. The reasons for these incorrect assignments are discussed. It was concluded that the decision tree approach, although less discriminating than originally suggested, remains a useful method for classifying compounds in terms of their probable toxicity and that further modifications to the tree could be made.     

Butter as an indicator of regional persistent organic pollutant contamination: further development of the approach using polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

The potential for use of butter as a widely available, relatively uniform lipid-rich matrix for the determination of spatial distributions of persistent organic pollutants has already been demonstrated. The present study determines the contributions to toxicity equivalence (TEQ) from polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) using butter samples from 24 countries world wide. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs ranged from 0.07 to 5.69 pg ΣWHO-TEQ g -1 lipid. For most samples, PCDD/F TEQ fell within ranges reported for European dairy products over the last decade (0.3-2 pg g -1 lipid I-TEQ), though a single sample from Spain was a notable exception. Other than this sample, the highest values were recorded for samples from the Netherlands and Italy, with those from India, China and Tunisia also being relatively high. The contribution from non- ortho -PCBs was particularly significant in samples from Germany, Austria, Italy, the Czech Republic, Tunisia, India and Argentina. Although overall TEQs were generally highest in European and Mediterranean butters, elevated levels were also apparent in industrializing regions of Asia (India, China) and Latin America (Argentina). More detailed regional studies would be necessary to identify likely dioxin and PCB sources in each case. Nevertheless, this study supports the utility of butter as a monitoring matrix that may be especially applicable in regions for which monitoring programmes are currently lacking.     

基于系统文献检索食品添加剂脱氢乙酸及其钠盐危害识别

本文基于系统性文献检索对食品添加剂脱氢乙酸及其钠盐进行危害识别。脱氢乙酸及其钠盐急性毒性属于低毒,其主要表现为中枢神经系统中毒症状;亚急性、亚慢性和慢性毒性主要表现为体重、进食量和其他生长指标明显降低,以及抗凝血作用;具有生殖发育毒性,主要表现为降低仔代体重及抑制骨骼发育。危害识别结果表明,脱氢乙酸及其钠盐经口暴露在一定剂量下可产生潜在毒性作用,目前亟需制定其健康指导值,为其作为食品添加剂使用的安全性评价提供依据。