Survey of aflatoxin B1 in helva,a traditional Turkish food,by TLC

A total of 102 helva samples consisting of 34 plain helva, 34 helva containing cacao, and 34 helva containing pistachio nuts purchased from helva-factories and supermarkets in Adana of Turkey were analysed for aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) by thin-layer chromatography. The detection limit of AFB₁ was 1 μg kg⁻¹. Recovery experiments were carried out with spiked samples in the range 2–10 μg kg⁻¹ of AFB₁. No AFB₁ was found in any plain helva and helva containing cacao samples. On the other hand, of 34 helva containing pistachio nuts AFB₁ was determined in eight samples. AFB₁ was found in excess of Turkish legal limit of 5 μg kg⁻¹ in 4 of 102 helva samples. This paper reports the data of the first survey for the presence of AFB₁ in helva in Turkey.     

Preventive effect of tannic acid in combination with modified atmospheric packaging on the quality losses of the refrigerated ground beef

Chemical, microbiological and sensorial changes of ground beef treated without and with tannic acid (200 mg/kg) and stored in air and under modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (80%O₂/20%CO₂ or 10%O₂/20%CO₂/70%N₂) were monitored during 15 days of storage at 4 °C. During the storage, samples treated with tannic acid and kept under all packaging conditions contained lower peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) with coincidental lower non-haem iron content, compared with non-treated counterparts (P < 0.05). The sample packed in high oxygen MAP treated without and with tannic acid had the higher oxymyoglobin and a^* values and received the higher likeness scores for colour, whereas the samples stored in air and under low oxygen MAP showed the lower values, regardless of tannic acid treatment. After 15 days of storage, myosin heavy chain (MHC) and actin of all tannic acid treated samples underwent less degradation than those without tannic acid treatment for all packaging conditions. Degradation of MHC was more pronounced in samples kept under MAP with high oxygen. Psychrophilic bacterial count (PBC) of all tannic acid treated samples was lower, compared with that of non-treated samples (P < 0.05), irrespective of packaging condition. Therefore, tannic acid treated samples stored under high oxygen MAP could maintain the red colour and retard lipid oxidation and microbial growth of ground beef during refrigerated storage.     

Characterization and catalytic activity of NiO/mesoporous aluminosilicate AlSBA-15 in conversion of some hydrocarbons

Mesoporous aluminosilicate AlSBA-15 was synthesized and adopted as a support for NiO with 3, 6 and 9 wt.% loadings. Characterization of various samples was performed through XRD, FTIR, DSC-TGA, TPR, SEM and TEM techniques. Textural and morphological characteristics were examined using N₂ adsorption–desorption isotherms. Catalytic activities were measured in cumene cracking for parent AlSBA-15 and in n-hexane and toluene cracking and cyclohexane dehydrogenation for supported NiO samples. Uniformity of the ordered 2D-hexagonal structure of AlSBA-15 was evident even after loading with NiO. NiO and NiOOH phases could be detected particularly in the sample containing 9 wt.% NiO. TPR profile of solid loaded with 3 wt.% NiO sample showed negative peaks at 400 and 600 °C, related to hydrogen spillover on reduced sample. Selectivity towards n-hexane and toluene cracking increased with both temperature and metal oxide loading, achieving 100% at 350 °C. In cyclohexane dehydrogenation, the sample loaded with 3 wt.% NiO was the most active and selective one towards benzene formation.     

Effects of marinating on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene,benzo[b]fluoranthene and fluoranthene) in grilled beef meat

The study was conducted to investigate the effect of marinating on the generation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and fluoranthene) in grilled beef meat. Seven marinade treatments containing 1) basic marinade, which include sugar, water, onion, turmeric, lemon grass, salt, garlic, coriander and cinnamon, 2) basic–oil, 3) Commercial marinade. 4) basic–oil–lemon juice, 5) basic–lemon juice, 6) basic–oil–tamarind and 7) commercial–tamarind at four time intervals (0, 4, 8 and 12 h) were applied on meat samples before charcoal grilling. Tandem solid-phase extraction (SPE) was used to clean up the samples. A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector was used for PAHs analysis. The study showed significant (p < 0.05) reduction (70%) of PAH in beef samples treated with the acidic marinade (containing 1.2% lemon juice). The basic–lemon > basic > basic–oil–lemon > basic–oil was the best order of marinade treatment. The duration of marinating was not a significant (p > 0.05) factor in PAH reduction.     

Microbiological evaluation of fresh-cut organic vegetables produced in Zambia

This study was undertaken to assess the microbiological quality of fresh-cut organic vegetables produced in Zambia. Fresh-cut organic mixed vegetables and green beans produced in Zambia were analysed for aerobic plate counts, coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and yeast and mould counts. The study included 160 samples for most of the parameters. The vegetables were grown on farms meant primarily for the export market. The vegetables were treated/washed with 150 μg ml⁻¹ chlorine solution at the processing plant prior to sampling. The aerobic plate count ranged between 3 log₁₀ and 9.7 log₁₀ CFU/g, with the highest count recorded for green beans. The largest grouping (26.1%) of vegetable samples fell between 3 and 4 log₁₀ CFU/g. Coliform counts were between 1.0 log₁₀ and 7.7 log₁₀ CFU/g. The highest incidence level was 31.4% for total coliform counts between 3 log₁₀ and 4 log₁₀ CFU/g. E. coli was only detected on mixed vegetables in the range of 0.6 log₁₀ to 3 log₁₀ CFU/g, while Enterobacteriaceae counts ranged between 1.6 log₁₀ and 9.8 log₁₀ CFU/g with the highest counts being found on green beans. The highest incidence level was of 25.8% for counts within the same range as the aerobic plate counts. Yeast and mould counts showed the highest incidence level between 5 log₁₀ and 6 log₁₀ CFU/g with an overall range between 1.5 log₁₀ and 5.6 log₁₀ CFU/g. L. monocytogenes, Salmonella spp. and S. aureus were detected in 20%, 23.1% and 83.9% of samples, respectively . C. perfringens and B. cereus were not detected in any of the samples analysed.     

Simultaneous determination of melamine and cyanuric acid in dairy products by mixed-mode solid phase extraction and GC–MS

This report described a method for simultaneous determination of cyanuric acid (CYA) and melamine (MEL) in dairy products. The samples were extracted by a mixture of acetonitrile/water and cleaned by graphite carbon/strong cation exchange (CARB/SCX) mixed-mode solid phase extraction column. The CYA and MEL were derivatized with bis(trimethylsily1)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) containing 1% Trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS), and quantified with the internal standards of ¹⁵N₃-cyanuric acid and ¹³C₃-melamine by GC–MS. The results indicated that CARB/SCX mixed solid phase extraction column could be used for sample pretreatment. The fortification recoveries were 80.8–101.5%, and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) were 3.6–7.9%. The detection limits of CYA and MEL were 0.025 mg kg⁻¹ and 0.01 mg kg⁻¹ respectively.     

Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in breakfast cereals from athens market: Occurrence and risk assessment

A method for aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and ochratoxin A (OTA) determination in breakfast cereals is described using a simultaneous methanolic-aqueous extraction followed by immunoaffinity columns clean-up step and High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with Fluorescence Detector (FD). Recoveries were found to be 78% and 83% for AFB₁ and OTA, respectively, while the detection limit (DL) was 0.02 ng g^?1 for both mycotoxins. Both determinations were applied in fifty five samples of breakfast cereals purchased from Athens market. Results revealed the presence of AFB₁ in 56.3% of the samples examined (mean 1.42 ng AFB₁ g^?1). Seven samples (median 3.5 ng AFB₁ g^?1) were found to be contaminated at levels higher than the EU limit (2 g g^?1). OTA was detected in 60% of the samples (mean 0.18 ng g^?1). Nineteen samples were found to be contaminated by both mycotoxins. In addition in the present study the daily exposure to AFB₁ and OTA is discussed.     

Presence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and infant milk products in Tehran,Iran

Aflatoxins are highly toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic compounds. The purpose of this survey was to determine natural occurrence and level of AFM₁ in pasteurized liquid milk, infant formula and milk-based cereal weaning food consumed in Tehran, Iran.A total of 328 branded milk products and liquid milk samples were collected and investigated by Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA).The samples of pasteurized liquid milk (n = 128), infant formula (n = 120) and milk-based cereal weaning food (n = 80) showed that the incidence of contamination with AFM₁ is 96.3%, the presence of AFM₁ in each group was 72.2 ± 23.5, 7.3 ± 3.9 and 16.8 ± 12.5 ng/kg, ranging between 31–113, 1–14 and 3–35 ng/kg, respectively.In general, the amount of AFM₁ in 100 (78%) of liquid milk samples and 24 (33%) of milk-based weaning food was higher than the maximum tolerance limit accepted by European Union, but in all of the infant formula samples was lower (European Communities and Codex Alimentarius has prescribed a limit of 50 ng/kg for AFM₁ in milk and 25 ng/kg in infant milk products).     

Catalytic performance of organically templated nano nickel incorporated-rice husk silica in hydroconversion of cyclohexene and dehydrogenation of ethanol

Rice husk silica (RHS) was extracted from local rice husk by acid digestion and burning at 650 °C. RHS-Ni catalyst was prepared by dissolving RHS in 1 N NaOH and titrating with 3 N HNO₃ containing 10 wt.% Ni²⁺. The organic modifiers, either p-amino benzoic acid (A) or p-phenylenediamine (PDA) were incorporated in 5 wt.% and reduced in H₂ flow. Investigation of the three catalysts, (RHS-Ni)_R350, (RHS-Ni–A)_R350 and (RHS-Ni–PDA)_R350, confirmed good dispersion of Ni nanoparticles; all catalysts were amorphous. The BET surface areas increased in the order: (RHS-Ni)_R350 < (RHS-Ni–A)_R350 < (RHS-Ni–PDA)_R350 with controlled pore sizes. The as-prepared catalysts were applied for both hydroconversion of cyclohexene with molecular H₂ and ethanol dehydrogenation, using a flow-type reactor, at different temperatures. The activity in cyclohexene hydroconversion and selectivity to cyclohexane depended upon the reaction temperature; at t < 150 °C, the increased hydrogenation activity was referred to the formed SiO₂–Ni–amine complex, pore regulation as a prime requirement for H₂ storage and homogeneous distribution of incorporated Ni nanoparticles. At t > 150 °C, the backward dehydrogenation pathway was more favored, due to unavailability of H₂; the process became structure-sensitive. In ethanol conversion, the prevailing dehydrogenation activity of organically modified catalyst samples was encouraged by improved homogeneous distribution of Ni nanoparticles and created micropre system.     

Aflatoxins in rice – A limited survey of products marketed in Austria

Eighty-one rice samples were purchased from different markets in Vienna and were analysed for their aflatoxin content. The samples were extracted using methanol in water (80/20 v/v) followed by immunoaffinity clean up. The determination was carried out by HPLC–FLD coupled to a Kobracell. Different samples including basmati rice, whole grain rice, long grain rice, short grain rice as well as puffed rice were investigated. Moreover, conventionally and organically produced rice were compared. The results revealed that 24 out of 81 samples contained detectable amounts of aflatoxins. Aflatoxin B₁ could be quantified in 15 samples and aflatoxin B₂ in one sample. The contamination range was noted to be between 0.45 μg kg⁻¹ and 9.86 μg kg⁻¹ for aflatoxin B₁ and 1.5 μg kg⁻¹ for aflatoxin B₂. Aflatoxins G₁ and G₂ were not detected in any sample. Three samples exceeded the maximum levels set in the European Union; having AFB₁ concentrations of 2.16, 2.85 and 9.86 μg kg⁻¹. In the three organic produced rice samples only traces of aflatoxins were found.     

Simultaneous determination of melamine and related compounds by capillary zone electrophoresis

A simple, rapid and accurate method for the simultaneous determination of melamine and related compounds (ammeline, ammelide and cyanuric acid) by capillary zone electrophoresis with diode array detection (CZE–DAD) was developed and successfully applied in egg, dairy products and pet feed. Real samples were extracted with acetonitrile/water/diethylamine (80/18/2, v/v/v) and analyzed by CZE method directly after centrifuging and filtering. Separation was performed by CZE using 40 mM disodium hydrogen phosphate buffer (pH 9.0) as running buffer, an applied voltage of +30 kV, and UV detection at 214 nm. Four targets were separated completely within 10 min. The optimized method demonstrated good performance concerning linearity (r ⩾ 0.9964), precision (⩽4%), accuracy (82.2–101.6%), and enough sensitivity. And the proposed method was proved to have the merits of good separation, easy operation, short analysis time and low cost.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in raw milk in South Korea using an immunoaffinity column and liquid chromatography

The level of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) contamination in raw milk produced in South Korea was investigated using immunoaffinity column chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector. A total of 100 raw milk samples were collected from 100 cattle ranches located in three different provinces of South Korea. Forty eight out of 100 raw milk samples contained AFM₁ at low level (0.002–0.08 μg/L) with mean value of 0.026 μg/L. Among the AFM₁ contaminated samples, 29 raw milk samples contained only traceable amount of AFM₁ below the limit of LOQ, 0.02 μg/L. None of samples exceeded the maximum level (0.5 μg/L) of Korean regulation for AFM₁ in milk. The limit of detection was 0.002 μg/L. The result of recovery test with 0.5 μg/L AFM₁ in raw milk sample was 96.3% (SD 3.6, n = 5). This is the first pioneering study to investigate the level of AFM₁ in raw milk used in dairy industries in South Korea.     

Aflatoxin M1 contamination in dairy products marketed in Iran during winter and summer

In the present study, 298 dairy product samples consisting of pasteurized milk (91 samples), yoghurt (68 samples), white cheese (72 samples), butter (31 samples) and ice cream (36 samples) collected from popular markets in four large Iranian cities were examined for aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) by thin layer chromatography (TLC) technique. The toxin was detected in 66 (72.5%) pasteurized milk samples (mean: 0.052 μg/l; range: 0.013–0.250 μg/l), 45 (66.1%) yoghurt samples (mean: 0.032 μg/kg; range: 0.015–0.119 μg/kg), 59 (81.9%) white cheese samples (mean: 0.297 μg/kg; range: 0.030–1.200 μg/kg), 8 (25.8%) butter samples (mean: 0.005 μg/kg; range: 0.013–0.026 μg/kg) and 25 (69.4%) ice cream samples (mean: 0.041 μg/kg; range: 0.015–0.132 μg/kg). The concentration of AFM₁ in 36.2%, 20.6%, 30.5%, 9.6% and 27.7% of pasteurized milk, yoghurt, white cheese, butter and ice cream samples, respectively, were higher than Iranian national standard limits. Levels of AFM₁ in samples of pasteurized milk, yoghurt, butter and ice cream collected in winter were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those collected in summer. In the case of white cheese, level of AFM₁ was higher in winter than in summer, but the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). The results indicated that the contamination of the dairy products in such a level could be a serious public health problem at the moment.     

Optimization,kinetics, physicochemical and ecotoxicity studies of Fenton oxidative remediation of hydrocarbons contaminated groundwater

Fenton oxidation remediation of hydrocarbons contaminated groundwater was investigated for efficiency and effectiveness. 10% pollution was simulated in the laboratory by contaminating groundwater samples with diesel and domestic purpose kerosene (DPK) in two different experimental set ups. Optimum conditions of concentrations of the treatment solutions and pH were established: 300 mg/L (FeSO₄), 150,000 mg/L (H₂O₂) and pH = 3 for the kerosene contaminant; 100 mg/L (FeSO₄), 300,000 mg/L (H₂O₂) and pH = 3 for the diesel contaminant. The results from kinetics study show that the remediation process is pseudo-first order reaction with a rate constant of 8.07 × 10⁴ mgL^?1hr^?1 and 3.13 × 10⁴ mgL^?1hr^?1 for the diesel and kerosene contaminants in that order with 95.32% and 79.25% reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD) for diesel and kerosene contaminated samples at the end of the remediation process respectively indicated that remediation have occurred significantly. Percent reduction in Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) as kerosene was 89.84% and that of the diesel contaminant as 91.87% after 6 hours of remediation. The general pollution index (GPI) for the hydrocarbons contaminated samples was in the range of 6.70–7.52 against the background value of 4.39 for the control groundwater sample. After treatment the GPI had dropped to 4.13–4.43 which depicts remarkable remediation although the samples remained impaired. Therefore there is the need of post-treatments to make the groundwater fit for domestic and agricultural uses. The application of the Fenton oxidative process is found to be very efficient, effective and rapid in reducing total petroleum hydrocarbon as kerosene and diesel as target contaminants.     

Occurrence of AFM1 in urine samples of a Brazilian population and association with food consumption

This survey evaluated the presence of AFM₁ in human urine samples from a specific Brazilian population, as well as corn, peanut, and milk consumption measured by two types of food inquiry. Urine samples from donors who live in the city of Piracicaba, State of São Paulo, Brazil were analyzed to detect the presence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁), an aflatoxin B₁ metabolite, which may be used as aflatoxin B₁ exposure biomarker. The AFM₁ analysis was performed using immunoaffinity clean-up and detection by high-performance-liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector. A total of 69 samples were analyzed and 45 of them (65%) presented contaminations ⩾1.8 pg ml⁻¹, which was the limit of quantification (LOQ). Seventy eight percent (n = 54) of the samples presented detectable concentrations of AFM₁ (>0.6 pg ml⁻¹). The AFM₁ concentration among samples above LOQ ranged from 1.8 to 39.9 pg ml⁻¹. There were differences in food consumption profile among donors, although no association was found between food consumption and AFM₁ concentration in urine. The high frequency of positive samples suggests exposure of the populations studied to aflatoxins.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in pasteurised,UHT milk and milk powder from goat origin

In the present study, 36 samples of pasteurised, ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treated and goat milk powder traded in the city of Campinas, Brazil, were analysed for aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁), from October to December 2004 and March to May 2005. Results showed 25 (69.4%) positive samples for AFM₁ at levels of 0.011–0.161 μg L⁻¹ of milk, which were below the tolerance limit of 0.500 μg L⁻¹ as adopted for AFM₁ in milk by Brazilian regulations. Mean levels of AFM₁ in pasteurised, UHT and goat milk powder were 0.072 ± 0.048, 0.058 ± 0.044 and 0.056 ± 0.031 μg L⁻¹, respectively. It is concluded that the incidence of AFM₁ in goat milk traded in Campinas is high, but at levels that probably leads to a non-significant human exposure to AFM₁ by consumption of goat milks.     

Effect of packaging and storage conditions on quality of shelled walnuts

The present study investigated the effect of packaging and storage conditions on quality of raw shelled walnuts. Walnut kernels were packaged in: (a) low density polyethylene (LDPE), 55 μm in thickness in air, (b) polyethylene terephthalate||polyethylene (PET||PE), 70 μm in thickness under N₂, and (c) PET-SiO_x||PE pouches, 62 μm in thickness under N₂. Samples were stored either under fluorescent light or in the dark at 4 or 20 °C for a period of 12 months. Quality parameters monitored were peroxide value (PV), hexanal, 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA), odor, and taste of product. PV ranged between 0.3 for fresh walnut kernels and 31.4 meq O₂/kg oil for walnuts packaged in PE pouches exposed to light after 12 months of storage. Respective values for hexanal were <28.5 μg/kg and 36.0 mg/kg and for TBA ca. 0.2 and 11 mg MDA/kg. Values for odor ranged between 0.2 for fresh walnut kernels and 5.7 for walnut kernels packaged in PE exposed to light after 12 months of storage at 20 °C. Respective values for taste were 0.7 and 6.8. Taste proved to be a more sensitive attribute than odor. Based on shelf life (taste) values and PV data it is proposed that the upper limit value for PV is close to 10.0 meq O₂/kg walnut oil. Respective limit values for hexanal are 1–2 mg hexanal/kg walnut and for TBA is 1–2 mg malondialdehyde/kg walnut. Walnuts retained acceptable quality for ca. 2 months in PE-air, 4–5 months in PET||PE-N₂ and at least 12 months in PET-SiO_x||PE-N₂ pouches at 20 °C, with samples stored in the dark retaining slightly higher quality than those exposed to light. The effect of parameters investigated followed the sequence: temperature > degree of O₂ barrier > lighting conditions.     

Aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in human milk in Ribeirão Preto-SP,Brazil

The objective of this study was to determine the extent of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) and ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination in human breast milk in the city of Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo State, Brazil. During 2012, 100 samples of human milk were collected at the local Human Milk Bank. The method comprised, immunoaffinity column purification and isolation, liquid chromatography separation and fluorescence detection. The average percentage recoveries of AFM₁ and OTA spiked at 20 and 50 ng/L in control human milk were 78.1 ± 11.7% and 73.7 ± 9.6%, respectively. The average relative standard deviations of AFM₁ and OTA spiked at the same levels were 11.7 and 9.6% respectively. The limits of detection was 0.3 ng/L for AFM₁ and OTA. The limit of determination was 0.8 ng/L for both mycotoxins. This method was used to analyze 100 human milk samples, of which, two samples were found to contain AFM₁ at level greater than 0.3 ng/L. OTA was detected in 66 samples (66%), wherein 32 were above the limit of detection and 34 were in the range of from 0.8 to 21 ng/L. Results of our study indicate that breast-fed Brazilian infants had only an insignificant exposure to AFM₁ and OTA.     

Inactivation by ozone of Listeria innocua on salmon-trout during cold-smoke processing

This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of gaseous ozone exposure on Listeria innocua 2030c growth during cold-smoke processing of Oncorhynchus mykiss (salmon-trout). Three sets of experiments were performed: inoculation with L. innocua 2030c followed by a 20 min ozone exposure were applied to (a) fresh salmon-trout after filleting, (b) to fresh whole fish, and (c) to fresh whole fish after removal of the fish slime. In sets (a) and (b) fillets were subsequently cold-smoked but not in set (c). The ozone concentration inside the exposure chamber after 20 min reached 0.1 × 10⁻³ g/l.Counts of L. innocua 2030c were performed after treatment for sets (a), (b) and (c), after smoking and weekly during 21 days in vacuum packs at 5 °C, for sets (a) and (b). Sampling for total Aerobic Plate Counts (APC) of non-inoculated samples was also performed in set (a). The percentage of salt in the water phase, peroxide values and the effect of treatment on sensory properties of cold-smoked salmon-trout fillets were also determined in the first and second set. In the first set, a decrease of less than 1 log₁₀ in L. innocua numbers occurred on ozone treated samples in all sampling occasions. APC was slightly lower on fresh fillets after treatment and on smoked fillets at 3 weeks of storage at 5 °C (less than 1 log₁₀ CFU/g). In the second set, a reduction greater than 1 log₁₀ L. innocua/g occurred on smoked fillets at the end of the storage period. In the third set, the slime removal resulted in a 1 log₁₀ L. innocua/g reduction on fresh treated samples.Ozone treatment had no significant (p > 0.05) effect on L. innocua counts on samples compared to those on untreated fish. In both sets, no significant differences among ozone treated/untreated samples were noticeable by sensory evaluation (p > 0.05).     

Estimate of aflatoxin M1 exposure in milk and occurrence in Brazil

The presence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) was investigated in 125 samples of powdered milk, pasteurized milk and ultra high treated (UHT) milk in the city of São Paulo, and estimates of AFM₁ intake were assessed. The samples were analysed using an immunoaffinity column for cleanup and a HPLC-FLD for determining AFM₁. The quantification limit was 10 ng/kg. AFM₁ was found in 119 (95.2%) at levels ranging from 10 to 200 ng/kg with mean concentration of 31 ng/kg. The average daily intake estimated for AFM₁ was 1 ng/kg bw per day for children and 0.188 ng/kg bw per day for adults.