Geothermal energy in Canada

Since 1973 an effort has been made to identify and assess geothermal resources within Canada. Although the task is far from complete, two areas have been examined in some detail: the recent volcanic complex of Meager Mountain, British Columbia, and the Western Platform in British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan. It has been found that there are substantial resources associated with both, but of different character. At Meager Mountain high-temperature water will probably eventually be used for the generation of electrical power, whereas the low- to medium-temperature resources of the Basin are suitable for space heating and direct use. The useful accessible resource base in the waters of the Western Platform is very large, and reserves, estimated as 1% of the resource base are an order of magnitude greater than the thermal equivalent of Canadian oil reserves. In eastern Canada, where conventional energy supplies are more expensive, prospects for geothermal resources are not generally favourable, except in small areas. Development of geothermal resources in Canada is hindered by the absence of an established industry and, except in the Province of British Columbia, of legislation for the control of exploration and development of geothermal resources.     

Geothermal energy in Kenya

Kenya has joined the list of countries that generate electricity from geothermal sources. A 15 MW geothermal station at Olkaria, near Lake Naivasha in the Rift Valley, began operating in August 1981 and is already providing Kenya with 7% of its electricity needs, at an economic cost.     

Geothermal energy use in hydrogen liquefaction

We propose the use of geothermal energy for hydrogen liquefaction, and investigate three possible cases for accomplishing such a task including (1) using geothermal output work as the input for a liquefaction cycle; (2) using geothermal heat in an absorption refrigeration process to precool the gas before the gas is liquefied in a liquefaction cycle; and (3) using part of the geothermal heat for absorption refrigeration to precool the gas and part of the geothermal heat to produce work and use it in a liquefaction cycle (i.e., cogeneration). A binary geothermal power plant is considered for power production while the precooled Linde–Hampson cycle is considered for hydrogen liquefaction. A liquid geothermal resource is considered and both ideal (i.e., reversible) and non-ideal (e.g., irreversible) system operations are analyzed. A procedure for such an investigation is developed and appropriate performance parameters are defined. Also, the effects of geothermal water temperature and gas precooling temperature on system performance parameters are studied. The results show that there is a significant amount of energy savings potential in the liquefaction work requirement as a result of precooling the gas in a geothermal absorption cooling system. Using geothermal energy in a cogeneration scheme (power production and absorption cooling) also provides significant advantages over the use of geothermal energy for power production only.     

Non-electrical uses of Geothermal energy

The non-electric applications of geothermal energy, with the exception of balneology, date back to the nineteenth century and have been given a new impetus by the recent oil crisis.In general, water or water-steam mixtures at temperatures between 20 and 180°C are used for these applications.The search for geothermal fluids draws on techniques from hydrogeology, geochemistry and geophysics, the same techniques as applied to the search for cold waters, together with some specific methods connected with the underground thermal conditions.Geothermal energy is used in agriculture, aquaculture, district heating and cooling and various industrial applications. The power associated with these uses throughout the world at present can be estimated at 6200 MW and future prospects are by now promising and of definite economic interest.The environmental impact from geothermal energy is lower than that caused by conventional energy sources. Reinjection of used fluids back into the underground may, however, solve pollution problems.     

Geothermal resource development in agriculture in Kebili region, Southern Tunisia

Geothermal energy in the Kebili region, south of Tunisia, is used in a number of applications, but mainly in agriculture. Approximately 95% of the thermal water is used for irrigation of oases and heating greenhouses. Generally, when the water temperature is less than 40–45 °C it is used directly for irrigation, but when it exceeds 45 °C it is cooled by means of atmospheric towers before being used to irrigate 16,000 hectares of oases (half of the total area of the oases in Tunisia). Geothermal energy is also used for heating and irrigating greenhouses, which are considered promising and economically feasible applications. The total area of heated greenhouses in the country has increased considerably and is today at 103 ha, 44% of which are located in the Kebili area. Utilization of the geothermal resources will, without a doubt, increase in the near future once we have implemented the last phase of the greenhouse project. By the end of 2003, 13 ha will be added in the region, representing an increase of 29%.     

Geothermal energy in Turkey: 2008 update

Geological studies indicate that the most important geothermal systems of western Turkey are located in the major grabens of the Menderes Metamorphic Massif, while those that are associated with local volcanism are more common in the central and eastern parts of the country. The present (2008) installed geothermal power generation capacity in Turkey is about 32.65 MWe, while that of direct use projects is around 795 MWt. Eleven major, high-to-medium enthalpy fields in western part of the country have 570 MWe of proven, 905 MWe of probable and 1389 MWe of possible geothermal reserves for power generation. In spite of the complex legal issues related to the development of Turkey's geothermal resources, their use is expected to increase in the future, particularly for electricity generation and for greenhouse heating.     

Geothermal energy resources and development in Iran

Interest in geothermal energy originated in Iran when James R. McNitt, a United Nations geothermal expert, visited the country in December 1974. In 1975, a contract among the Ministry of Energy, ENEL (Entes Nazionale per L’Energia Elettrica) of Italy and TB (Tehran Berkeley) of Iran was signed for geothermal exploration in the north-western part of Iran. In 1983, the result of investigations defined Sabalan, Damavand, Khoy-Maku and Sahand regions as four prospected geothermal sites in north-western Iran.From 1996 to 1999, a countrywide geothermal energy resource exploration project was carried out by Renewable Energy Organization of Iran (SUNA) and 10 more potential areas were indicated additionally.Geothermal potential site selection using Geographic Information System (GIS) was carried out in Kyushu University in 2007. The results indicated 8.8% of Iran as prospected geothermal areas in 18 fields.Sabalan as a first priority of geothermal potential regions was selected for detailed explorations. Since 1995, surface exploration and feasibility studies have been carried out and five promising areas were defined. Among those prospective areas, Northwest Sabalan geothermal filed was defined for detailed exploration to justify exploration drilling and to estimate the reservoir characteristics and capacity.From 2002 to 2004, three deep exploration wells were drilled for evaluation of subsurface geological conditions, geothermal reservoir assessment and response simulation. Two of the wells were successful and a maximum temperature of 240 °C at a depth of 3197 m was recorded. As a result of the reservoir simulation, a 55-MW power plant is projected to be installed in the Sabalan field as a first in geothermal power generation. To supply the required steam for the geothermal power plant (GPP) 17 deep production and reinjection wells are planned to be drilled this year.     

Geothermal energy: Non-electric potential in the USA

In this paper, the authors examine the energy market potential of non-electric uses of hydrothermal geothermal in the USA during the period 1985–1995. A generalized pricing model is developed for estimating a future delivered price of geothermal energy for a wide range of uses. These prices are then compared with forecast prices of alternative fuels. Market potential is then calculated as the sum of the energy demands of consumers for whom geothermal is at least price competitive. A modest contribution, one which is sensitive to government support, is expected from geothermal during the forecast period.     

Climatic predispositions of Yugoslavia for solar energy application

This paper is a summary report of an extended investigation of the practical usability of solar energy in Yugoslavia. The main tool for calculation was TRNSYS simulation program. Meteorological data and technical parameters of typical commercial solar devices were used as input data. Solar flux data on tilted planes were obtained by means of the Liu and Jordan method. For five locations, chosen to characterize all typical climatic regions in Yugoslavia, a detailed hour by hour simulation of the performance of the typical commercial domestic hot water solar heating system (DHW) was carried out. In summer the efficiency of such a device was similar for all locations, ranging from 40 to 45 per cent. In the winter months the efficiency varied from 30 per cent in sunny coastal regions to less than 10 per cent in poluted urban areas. The same type of calculations were worked out for a combined solar-traditional space-heating system, including the investigation of the influence of some important parameters on the efficiency of the solar part of the system. Calculations show that in every polluted urban areas only low-temperature load heat exchangers are to be recommended; in the coastal and southern parts of the country, however, higher working temperature (50°C) is allowed which results in the average efficiency of the system of more than 25 per cent even if the worst month and even if the ordinary black-paint, double glazed collectors are used.     

Geothermal energy potential related to active volcanism in Indonesia

About 90 thermal areas in Indonesia are indicated, most of which could be grouped into hyperthermal areas located in active volcanic belts. The thermal manifestations are fumaroles, geysers, hot springs and hot mud-pools with surface temperatures generally at boiling point or more than 70°C. A tentative evaluation has been made of the potential of 54 thermal areas with a view to their further development for electrical power. The successful results of these studies in several thermal areas suggest that these volcanic geothermal systems have a high energy potential of about 13,000 – 14,000 MW.The Kawah Kamojang geothermal field in West Jawa is the first promising attempt at utilizing this geothermal energy for electrical power; a 30 MW geothermal power plant has already been installed, and a further 3 units totalling 165 MW are planned.     

Geothermal energy as an ‘alternative’ source

Geothermal energy is receiving increasing attention, with over sixty countries now looking seriously at the possibility of its exploitation. Although, for most parts of the world, a non renewable resource, new techniques such as pressure fracturing of rocks, could very considerable extend the resource base. Geothermal energy offers promise of becoming a very important complementary source in many parts of the world, providing heat up to about 250°C and releasing premium fuels for applications requiring higher temperatures or transportability.     

Geothermal energy in Phrao Basin, Chiang Mai, Thailand

Phrao Basin is famous for its geothermal and seismic activities. There are five geothermal manifestations along the western margin of the basin. These geothermal sites are probably controlled by the major fault extending northward from the Sankamphaeng geothermal field. Geological, geochemical and geophysical studies, along with 2 boreholes of 150 m depth, were aimed at investigating the potential of this area. The results indicated that the intermediate depth of the geothermal reservoir may produce enough hot fluids for various uses, albeit on a small-scale. Several industries that could be attracted to Phrao Basin by development of these geothermal areas have been identified.     

Geothermal energy and the dissemination of information: the role of the International Geothermal Association

The International Geothermal Association (IGA), founded on 6 July 1988, is an international, worldwide, non-profit and non-governmental association whose objective and mission is to promote the research and utilization of geothermal resources, through the compilation, publication, and dissemination of scientific and technical data and information. The Information Committee (IC) of the IGA is responsible for advising the IGA Board on policies concerned with the collection, compilation, publication, exchange and dissemination of geothermal information, including information on utilization, development, technical findings, scientific research, meetings, publications and Association activities. The Committee is also responsible for the implementation of information policies determined by the Board.