Modeling stochastic load variations in sewer systems.

In wastewater treatment and environmental risk assessments increasing attention is paid to the fate of micropollutants. These are time-consuming, expensive and difficult to detect and quantify. If a substance's load or concentration is subject to high dynamic fluctuations, it is demanding to take representative samples, especially when the "variation" is unknown. Therefore, we developed a concept to model stochastic load variations in sewer systems. We gathered readily available information from existing databases (population and consumption data) and combined it with the characteristics of household activities and appliances. We succeeded in predicting realistic short-term variations of benzotriazole (contained in dishwasher detergents) and validated them with a high-frequency measuring campaign. Benzotriazole stands as an example for other household chemicals, which cannot be measured so easily. All required information used within this case study is also available for other substances and catchments. This allows the forecast of stochastic load variations for many chemical compounds of interest. It helps to plan measuring campaigns, to estimate discharged loads from combined sewer overflows and to have a characteristic input for modeling purposes.     

移动荷载下复合夹层用于PCC+AC路面防裂效果分析

ISAC用来防治复合式路面反射裂缝虽具有一定效果,但在应对现今车辆严重超载加速路面开裂方面仍显不足,特在其中嵌入合金弹簧来增强复合夹层的防裂能力。运用三维有限元软件模拟车辆移动荷载,对路面设置复合夹层前后的动力响应特性进行比较,分析了夹层在抵抗变形和消减应力方面的效能。结果显示,复合夹层能有效的减小裂缝处沥青层底的错动程度和剪应力峰值,消散该区域应力高度集中;不同轴重时,裂缝处应力和变形峰值都与轴重基本呈线性关系,设置复合夹层后,超载对变形和受力的不利影响降低。     

Sampling sufficiency for estimating zooplankton diversity in neotropical floodplain lakes

This study focuses on determining how many samples are needed to effectively assess the species richness of a community. Zooplankton samples at 40 sampling sites distributed among four lakes in the floodplain of the middle Araguaia River (Central‐West region of Brazil) were evaluated to determine the effect of the accumulation of collecting points by lake on species richness estimates. The results indicated the zooplankton community has high spatial heterogeneity. Thus, using a single sampling unit per lake would not be sufficient to accurately estimate their diversity (i.e. the zooplankton composition in these cases would be represented mainly by abundant species). Sampling designs that include a minimum of seven sampling sites in each lake are needed to record 70% of the total species richness. It is recommended, therefore, that researchers use a larger number of sampling sites per lake or, alternatively, that the water obtained and filtered through plankton nets is extracted from a wide area and in different lake compartments, rather than from a single site.     

Assessments of Composite and Discrete Sampling Approaches for Water Quality Monitoring

Achieving an operational compromise between spatial coverage and temporal resolution in national scale river water quality monitoring is a major challenge for regulatory authorities, particularly where chemical concentrations are hydrologically dependent. The efficacy of flow-weighted composite sampling (FWCS) approaches for total phosphorus (TP) sampling (n?=?26–52 analysed samples per year), previously applied in monitoring programmes in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, and which account for low to high flow discharges, was assessed by repeated simulated sampling on high resolution TP data. These data were collected in three research catchments in Ireland over the period 2010–13 covering a base-flow index range of 0.38 to 0.69. Comparisons of load estimates were also made with discrete (set time interval) daily and sub-daily sampling approaches (n?=?365 to >1200 analysed samples per year). For all years and all sites a proxy of the Norwegian sampling approach, which is based on re-forecasting discharge for each 2-week deployment, proved most stable (median TP load estimates of 87–98%). Danish and Swedish approaches, using long-term flow records to set a flow constant, were only slightly less effective (median load estimates of 64–102% and 80–96%, respectively). Though TP load estimates over repeated iterations were more accurate using the discrete approaches, particularly the 24/7 approach (one sample every 7 h in a 24 bottle sampler - median % load estimates of 93–100%), composite load estimates were more stable, due to the integration of multiple small samples (n?=?100–588) over a deployment.     

Development of a standardized large river bioassessment protocol (LR‐BP) for macroinvertebrate assemblages

Efforts to develop benthic macroinvertebrate sampling protocols for the bioassessment of lotic ecosystems have been focused largely on wadeable systems. As these methods became increasingly refined and accepted, a growing number of monitoring agencies expanded their work and are now developing sampling protocols for non‐wadeable large rivers. Large rivers can differ from wadeable streams in many ways that preclude the use of some wadeable stream sampling protocols. Hence, resource managers need clear and consistent large river bioassessment protocols for measuring ecological integrity that are cost effective, logistically feasible, and meet or are adaptable to the multi‐purpose sampling needs of researchers and managers. We conducted a study using an experimental macroinvertebrate sampling method that was designed to overcome limitations of several methods currently in use. Our objectives were to: (1) determine the appropriate number of sampling points needed; (2) determine an appropriate laboratory subsample size to use and (3) examine how varying reach length affects assemblage characteristics. For six reaches in each of two large rivers, we sampled the macroinvertebrates of both banks at 12 transects separated by increasingly larger distances using a multi‐habitat, semi‐quantitative technique. Interpretation of results relied on the values attained for nine benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage metrics. Results from Monte Carlo methods indicated that, using the sampling methods described herein, a representative sample of the assemblage was collected by sampling both banks on 6 transects. Across all sites, we did not observe a consistent relationship between transect spacing (i.e. total reach length) and metric values, indicating that our sampling protocol was relatively robust with respect to variation in reach length. Therefore, flexibility exists that permits the study reach length to be dictated by the spatial scale (e.g. repeating geomorphic units) in question. For those preferring to use a fixed reach length, we recommend that transects be spaced at a minimum of 100 m intervals over a 500 m distance. We recommend that the field method be coupled with a fixed laboratory subsample size of 300 organisms for bioassessment purposes, with the recognition that a subsample size of 500 organisms may be needed to meet the objectives of more rigorous studies. It is likely this approach will over‐sample sites of uniform composition, but the goal was to develop a robust sampling protocol that would perform well across sites of differing habitat composition. Possible modifications to the method to streamline its future application in the field are provided. Published in 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of sampling methods for monitoring effluent phosphorus for on-site wastewater treatment systems

More than 1,600 prefabricated on-site wastewater treatment plants are in operation in the Morsa watershed in Norway. As of 2010 a monitoring program on the performance of these plants is in effect. Sampling methods for wastewater treatment plants is discussed, and different methods are compared. The study includes six different plant models, of which all are prefabricated package plants. The parameters investigated were total phosphorus (Tot-P), orthophosphate (PO(4)-P) and suspended solids (SS). Diurnal curves showed no apparent repetitive variation over 24 h intervals, indicating good equalization and robust design to compensate for highly variable loadings. A comparison of grab samples and time proportional composite samples showed almost identical average values, and a paired two-tailed Student's t-test indicates no statistically significant difference between the sampling methods. The results indicate that equivalent results should be expected irrespective of sampling method, and, as composite sampling is attributed to much higher costs, it is recommended that grab sampling should be used when a large number of plants are evaluated.     

复合地基桩体向垫层刺入量模型试验研究

桩体刺入垫层量的分析研究是复合地基沉降和荷载传递规律的一个重要组成部分,它将进一步完善复合地基沉降理论。然而目前对于桩体刺入量的研究不多。为了解具有垫层复合地基的作用机理、掌握桩土的荷载分担及桩体刺入垫层的规律,进行了不同工况的复合地基模型试验,得到了一系列有益的结论。试验结果对复合地基沉降研究提供了理论依据和数据支持,对其设计起到一定的指导作用。     

ADVANCES IN MEASURING TECHNIQUES OF BED LOAD

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1956-2009年延河水沙变化特征及其驱动力研究

分析降雨、人类活动等因子驱动下的流域水沙效应是流域管理的基础。本文采用移动平均法、累计距平法,线性回归统计等,分析了1956-2009年期间延河流域的降雨、径流和输沙量变化及其驱动因素。结果表明:延河流域降雨量与径流量、输沙量变化趋势基本一致,均可分为1956-1969年的基准期和1970年以后的3个时段的治理期等4个阶段。基准期三者均达到最大,治理期以输沙变化的时段性最为显著;且三者基本符合先大幅度下降(1970-1983年),然后明显上升(1984-1993年),再迅速下降(1994-2009年)的时段性。径流泥沙的时段性既是降雨量出现阶段性变化的结果,更是阶段性人类活动的水沙效应结果。整个治理期降雨和人类活动对减少径流的贡献比是60∶40,对减少泥沙的贡献比为30∶70;治理时段引起水沙变化的主要人类活动包括:1970-1983年的淤地坝、水库等水利设施建设大大减少水沙;1984-1993年的农业包产到户政策使得减水减沙幅度逐渐减少;1994年以来延河治理和退耕还林战略等极大地减少了流域径流泥沙。研究结果对延河流域管理实践有指导意义。     

Lost in space,the sequel: spatial sampling issues with 1‐D PHABSIM

The Physical Habitat Simulation System (PHABSIM) is a popular method for evaluating the habitat value of a stream in terms of a statistic, weighted usable area (WUA). Usually, PHABSIM is used with one‐dimensional (1‐D) hydraulic models, and curves of WUA over discharge are calculated at transects and combined to produce a composite curve. Curves of WUA over discharge are often presented as evidence in proceedings to determine instream flow requirements, so the reliability of these curves is important. Representing a reach of stream with transects introduces ordinary statistical questions: is the sample of transects unbiased, and is it large enough to produce usefully precise estimates? Unfortunately, these questions are seldom considered in PHABSIM studies, even though most PHABSIM studies characterize streams with fewer than 15 transects. Moreover, transect locations usually are selected deliberately, so estimates of WUA will usually be biased. This paper extends an earlier analysis of the uncertainty in composite WUA curves with a much larger set of transect curves, with more analysis of uncertainty in the shape of the WUA curves, and with a different method for simulating errors in estimates of WUA at the transects. The results show that even with larger than usual numbers of transect curves, the precision of composite WUA curves is likely to be poor, especially if there are errors in the transect WUA curves. I also offer suggestions regarding sampling, and for estimating the number of transects that might be needed to achieve a given level of precision in WUA estimates. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of River Load Estimation Methods for Total Phosphorus

Accurate estimates of pollutant loadings to the Great Lakes are required for trend detection, model development, and planning. On many major rivers, infrequent sampling of most pollutants makes these estimates difficult. However, most large rivers have complete daily flow records available from the U.S. Geological Survey. A number of different estimation methods have been developed to use these data in conjunction with available concentration data to calculate pollutant loadings. Several of these methods have been evaluated in this paper for a typical major tributary.Intensive measurements of pollutant loadings to Lake Michigan from the Grand River in 1976–1977 were conducted by USEPA, Region V. Daily concentrations of several chemical parameters, including total phosphorus, were determined. This information, together with daily river flow rates from USGS, provide an excellent data set for testing various load estimation methods. Ten different methods were tested using 680 randomly generated 25-sample subsets of the daily total phosphorus data set. The methods tested included several simple calculation schemes, as well as flowconcentration correlations and the stratified ratio estimator. The latter method is shown to be at least slightly better than the others for these data and for this type of sampling, including when sampling is concentrated during periods of high flow.     

A Nonlinear Interval Model for Water and Waste Load Allocation in River Basins

In this paper, a new methodology is proposed for simultaneous allocation of water and waste load in river basins. A nonlinear interval number optimization model is used to incorporate the uncertainties of model inputs and parameters. In this methodology, the bounds of the uncertain inputs are only required, not necessarily knowing their probability density or fuzzy membership functions. In the proposed model, the existing uncertainties in water demands and monthly available water are considered in the optimization model. Also the economic and environmental impacts of water allocation to the agricultural water users are taken into account. To have an equitable water and waste load allocation, benefits are reallocated to water users using some solution concepts of the cooperative game theory. Results of applying the methodology to the Dez river system in south-western part of Iran show its effectiveness and applicability for water and waste load allocation in an uncertain environment.     

沙量平衡法计算冲淤量的不确定度：—兰州至花园口河段

本文主要讨论内容有三：一是研究分析兰州以下无实测冲淤变化资料河段的主河槽冲淤厚度，二是对有实测断面法冲淤量河段，可用沙量平衡方程计算综合误差值，中用沙量平衡计算的冲淤量实际上包括了综合误差，三是用无产测冲淤变化资料河段，本文用同流量水位法和沙量平衡法估算兰州以下各个河段的冲淤厚度。还引用不同研究答员用沙量的平衡法计算的头道拐－龙门河段1959－1989年冲淤量，说明其沙量平衡法的冲淤量涌反映实际的河道冲淤情况。     

Continuous monitoring in sewer networks an approach for quantification of pollution loads from CSOs into surface water bodies.

Different approaches for quantification of pollution loads discharged from combined sewer networks into surface water bodies have been observed over the last few years and decades, but a large number of unresolved problems still remain. Many monitoring campaigns have been based on manual or automated spot sampling - with the long known limitations of this method such as sampling errors and errors due to sample conservation, transport and preparation. On the other hand, only recently have sensors became available which are suitable for continuous application in sewer networks. A large number of practical problems still have to be solved before continuous monitoring in sewer networks will be successful. Additionally, most of the applicable sensors are based on surrogate methods which results in a considerable effort for reference measurements for sensor calibration. Finally, it has to be considered that, depending on the sewer network topography, deposition and remobilisation of pollutants varies considerably, which limits the generality of monitoring results and, subsequently, their applicability as a base for the design of storm water tanks or combined sewer overflows (CSO). A monitoring station for continuous monitoring of load discharges from a CSO has been installed and operated for more than one year. The design and equipment of the measurement station, operational experiences and results are given in this paper.     

Adaptive Cluster Sampling: Estimating Density of Spatially Autocorrelated Larvae of the Sea Lamprey with Improved Precision

Adaptive cluster sampling (ACS) provides researchers with an alternative technique to estimate the abundance of rare or spatially clustered organisms, but its application in field investigations has been limited to relatively few studies. We used ACS to estimate parameters of a spatially autocorrelated population of larval sea lampreys, Petromyzon marinus, in Wilmot Creek, a Lake Ontario tributary. When compared with simple random sampling (SRS), ACS significantly increased catch per sample as well as the percentage of samples that contained larvae. Although ASC-generated samples are spatially biased, the use of established formulae enabled us to calculate unbiased estimators of mean larval density and variance. With ACS, variance was reduced, improving the precision around estimates of mean density, however; increased precision came at the price of greater sampling effort. When variance was adjusted for effort, ASC provided equal or greater efficiency than SRS in 33% of sampling events, with no apparent site or seasonal bias. Based on the knowledge that larval sea lampreys are spatially aggregated, we anticipated that ACS would result in higher precision for a greater proportion of sampling events. Nonetheless, we consider ACS to be a useful technique for evaluating larval sea lamprey populations and anticipate increased application for investigating other spatially over-dispersed species.     

Tracking human faecal contamination in tropical reservoirs in Puerto Rico

Using a combination of chemical and microbiological (culture-dependent and -independent) approaches, sources of human faecal contamination were identified in two water reservoirs in Puerto Rico – Guajataca and La Plata. Fluorescence from optical brighteners (OB) – commonly found in laundry detergents – was used as an indicator of contamination from septic systems and other household discharges. Traditional indicators of faecal contamination (e.g. Escherichia coli; faecal enterococci) were enumerated, and human faecal contamination was confirmed through detection of Bifidobacterium adolescentis utilizing polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based analyses. For Guajataca Reservoir, four of 19 sampling sites (21%) were positive for the presence of B. adolescentis under baseflow conditions. The OB fluorescence data suggested that the most likely source for three of these sites was residential, whereas the source of contamination at the remaining site, although of human origin, was probably non-residential. B. adolescentis was present in 83% (19 of 23) of the sampling sites in La Plata. The La Plata sources were more difficult to identify because samples were taken under stormflow conditions, although the presence of OB fluorescence suggested a residential origin in a number of instances. OB fluorescence and traditional bacterial indicators of faecal contamination produced a number of false positive and negative findings for both reservoirs, pointing to the importance of understanding the limitations of these tools for tropical freshwater systems. The results of this study should be useful in developing a weight-of-evidence approach for the identification of potential sources and extent of human faecal contamination in similar tropical reservoirs, a necessary step in the development of management plans to reduce or eliminate these sources.     

基于三维数值模拟的土-岩复合边坡稳定性分析

运用有限差分强度折减法对肯斯瓦特水利枢纽工程联合进水口土-岩复合边坡的稳定性进行了模拟分析。模拟结果表明:联合进水口土-岩复合边坡在坡脚和坡面浅表层由于剪应力和局部的拉应力作用发生过微弱的塑性位移,下部白垩系下统呼图壁河组(k1h1)岩质边坡基本上处于弹性变形,上部卵砾石土质边坡形成最危险的滑移面;从演变过程预测,坡顶处第四系中～上更新统(Q2-3al)松散层和第四系上更新统(Q3al)胶结层会出现蠕动滑移和崩塌的危险。模拟结果将对土-岩复合边坡的稳定性控制具有重要的参考作用。更多还原     

An extrapolation method for estimating loads from unmonitored areas using watershed model load ratios

It is important to routinely estimate loads from an entire watershed to describe current conditions and evaluate how watershed-wide management efforts have affected the nutrient and sediment export that affect downstream water quality. However, monitoring in most areas, including the Great Lakes watershed, consists of sampling at a limited number of sites that are only periodically used to estimate total watershed loading. Here, we describe a technique to extrapolate loads measured at a limited number of reference sites to the total load from a large watershed using load ratios between monitored sites and unmonitored areas obtained from a watershed model (i.e., model load ratio, MLR, approach). In this study, modeled nonpoint-source load ratios between monitored tributaries (reference sites) and nearby unmonitored areas and point-source delivery factors for all areas were obtained from a Spatially Referenced Regression On Watershed attributes (SPARROW) model and used to extrapolate the measured loads from an ongoing monitoring program (Great Lakes Restoration Initiative Tributary monitoring program) to the entire Great Lakes watershed. The MLR approach incorporates spatial variability in nonpoint- and point-source delivery, watershed characteristics, and hydrology that are often not considered when estimating loads from unmonitored areas, such as using the unit area load (UAL) extrapolation approach. The MLR approach provided smaller watershed loads than the UAL approach because yields from monitored sites, in general, were larger than from unmonitored areas. When both approaches were used to estimate loads at adjacent monitored sites, the MLR approach provided more accurate estimates than the UAL approach.     

Sorption and high dynamics of micropollutants in sewers

Down-the-drain household chemicals are mostly discharged intermittently (i.e. with water pulses, e.g. pharmaceuticals from toilet flushing) and well soluble micropollutants can, therefore, be subject to significantly high short-term fluctuations. It is not known how these fluctuations are attenuated by sorption to sewer sediments or biofilm. First, we investigated in this paper the effect of sorption for substances with high, medium and low affinity to particulate matter based on computational experiments. For substances with high K(oc) we found that the additional attenuation of a load pattern due to sorption is in the same order of magnitude as caused by dispersion in a typical main sewer. The mass flux between wastewater and the first biofilm layer was identified as the most sensitive parameter. Furthermore, the interplay of systematic, slow diurnal variations does not affect short-term fluctuations. Second, during rain events partial erosion of the biofilm can lead to increased micropollutant loads for substances with high K(oc). This increase is in the same order of magnitude as diurnal variations of the loads in the liquid phase and the TSS.     

Domestic Water Demand During Droughts in Temperate Climates: Synthesising Evidence for an Integrated Framework

In the upcoming years, as the population is growing and ageing, as lifestyle changes create the need for more water and as fewer people live in each household, the UK water sector will have to deal with challenges in the provision of adequate water services. Unless critical action is taken, every area in the UK may face a supply-demand gap by the 2080s. Extreme weather events and variations that alter drought and flood frequency add to these pressures and there is therefore a need to develop evidence-based drought scenarios models for water management purposes. However, little evidence is available about householders’ response to drought and there are few if any studies that have synthesised this evidence. In response, this paper discusses the current empirical literature on the factors driving domestic water consumption under both ‘normal’ and drought conditions. The paper identifies the limited availability of evidence on the many different and evolving factors affecting domestic consumption under both ‘normal’ and drought conditions and stresses the need for the inclusion of inter and intra household factors as well as water use practices in future demand forecasting models. The paper then presents ‘Water Cultures’ as an integrative modelling framework to combine the limited evidence that is available on the interactions of social norms, practices and material cultures. This enables the paper both to capture both the uncertainty and heterogeneity of individual and/or household level variation and also outline the research gaps that need to be addressed.