Development of a void ratio-moisture ratio-net stress framework for the prediction of the volumetric behavior of unsaturated granular materials

Despite extensive research on the behavior of unsaturated fine-grained materials, there is still a lack of understanding of the volumetric behavior of unsaturated granular materials. In this research, a model has been developed to predict the fundamental volumetric behavior of unsaturated granular materials through loading and wetting state paths. In this regard, a loading-wetting surface was developed in a space of void ratio-moisture ratio-net stress. A distinctive feature of the proposed model is the relative simplicity in obtaining the model parameters using conventional geotechnical testing equipment. Two types of recycled granular materials, commonly applied in unbound pavements were used, namely, recycled crushed brick (CB) and excavation waste rock (WR). The uniqueness of the developed surface was evaluated by employing a number of loading and wetting state paths. The results indicate that the developed surface is unique in its loading state paths; however, it only shows uniqueness in its wetting state paths for stress levels greater than 2000 kPa. The proposed model seeks to introduce the application of the unsaturated soil mechanics theory, for predicting the behavior of granular materials in the field, by providing a practical and cost-effective methodology.     

Neural network-based model for prediction of permanent deformation of unbound granular materials

Several available mechanistic-empirical pavement design methods fail to include predictive model for permanent deformation (PD) of unbound granular materials (UGMs), which make these methods more conservative. In addition, there are limited regression models capable of predicting the PD under multi-stress levels, and these models have regression limitations and generally fail to cover the complexity of UGM behaviour. Recent researches are focused on using new methods of computational intelligence systems to address the problems, such as artificial neural network (ANN). In this context, we aim to develop an artificial neural model to predict the PD of UGMs exposed to repeated loads. Extensive repeated load triaxial tests (RLTTs) were conducted on base and subbase materials locally available in Victoria, Australia to investigate the PD properties of the tested materials and to prepare the database of the neural networks. Specimens were prepared over different moisture contents and gradations to cover a wide testing matrix. The ANN model consists of one input layer with five neurons, one hidden layer with twelve neurons, and one output layer with one neuron. The five inputs were the number of load cycles, deviatoric stress, moisture content, coefficient of uniformity, and coefficient of curvature. The sensitivity analysis showed that the most important indicator that impacts PD is the number of load cycles with influence factor of 41%. It shows that the ANN method is rapid and efficient to predict the PD, which could be implemented in the Austroads pavement design method.     

粒状材料临界状态的颗粒级配效应

采用理想颗粒材料（DEM理想球体）、人工颗粒材料（玻璃球）和天然颗粒材料（Hostun砂）,通过数值和室内常规三轴排水试验研究了颗粒材料级配对其应力-应变响应和临界状态的影响规律。试验结果表明：在相同加载初始条件下（e₀ = 0.574,p₀' = 400 kPa）,随着不均匀系数C_u（d₆₀/d₁₀）的增大,试样在q-ε₁平面上从剪胀变为剪缩,在ε_v-ε₁平面上表现出由应变软化转变为应变硬化的特性。通过不同围压下的三轴排水试验,在e-p'和q-p'平面上分别对不同级配的颗粒材料集合体绘制了临界状态线,e-p'平面随着C_u的增大临界状态线往下偏移,而在q-p'平面上临界状态线不随C_u的改变而改变。     

Two-scale modeling of granular materials: A FEM-FEM approach

In the present paper, a homogenization-based two-scale FEM-FEM model is developed to simulate compactions of visco-plastic granular assemblies. The granular structure consisting of two-dimensional grains is modeled by the microscopic finite element method at the small-scale level, and the homogenized viscous assembly is analyzed by the macroscopic finite element method at large-scale level. The link between scales is made using a computational homogenization method. The two-scale FEM-FEM model is developed in which each particle is treated individually with the appropriate constitutive relations obtained from a representative volume element, kinematic conditions, contact constraints, and elimination of overlap satisfied for every particle. The method could be used in a variety of problems that can be represented using granular media.     

基于连续介质模型的颗粒材料孔隙度及孔隙水压力计算公式

孔隙度是能够部分反映颗粒材料微观结构的一个宏观量,其数值及其演化对颗粒材料的宏观力学行为有重要影响。基于连续介质模型,在颗粒体积应变均匀的前提下推导了颗粒材料的孔隙度随颗粒集合局部平均体积应变的演化公式,并应用该关系式结合孔隙水状态方程给出了饱和颗粒材料的孔隙水压力与孔隙度、固体颗粒体积模量、固体颗粒变形之间的关系。所得公式可用于饱和含液颗粒材料流–固耦合计算或饱和多孔介质宏观–细观多尺度流–固耦合渗流分析。     

Constitutive model for swelling properties of unsaturated bentonite buffer materials during saturation

Bentonite-based materials are candidate buffer materials for the geological disposal of radioactive waste in many countries. Once the disposal facility is closed and the groundwater level recovers, the buffer will gradually become saturated by the infiltration of groundwater. The swelling properties of saturated bentonite affect the distribution of dry density and the stress state within the buffer. Therefore, to evaluate the long-term safety of the buffer, a model must be developed that can continuously express the mechanical behavior of bentonite from the construction and operation of the repository for disposal (the unsaturated state) to the resaturation phase (saturated state). In this study, the existing elastoplastic constitutive model for saturated expansive soils was extended to predict the mechanical response in the unsaturated state. In formulating this model, the effective degree of saturation and the plastic volumetric strain were employed as the hardening parameters to express the changes in stiffness and swelling properties due to desaturation or saturation. In addition, a method was proposed for estimating the material parameters added to the expanded constitutive model. This study demonstrated the validity of the proposed constitutive model and the parameter estimation method by comparing the results of simulations with those of laboratory tests.     

A bounding surface plasticity model for highly crushable granular materials

A bounding surface plasticity model is presented for crushable rockfills in the framework of the critical state soil mechanics which includes translation of the critical state line due to particle crushing. A translating limiting isotropic compression line is also introduced and incorporated in the model to describe the position and evolution of the bounding surface. A particle breakage index is introduced as a function of stress invariants which controls the translation of the critical state and limiting isotropic compression lines. The performance of the model is demonstrated using the results of experimental tests on different types of rockfill materials conducted under both monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. The study shows the capability of the model in capturing the characteristic features of the behavior of rockfill and other crushable materials such as ballast and coarse gravel under both conventional and complex loading paths.     

Effects of fines on the cyclic liquefaction behaviour in unsaturated,well-graded materials

The liquefaction of cargoes of metallic ores during maritime transportation is believed to have caused a number of ships to capsize during the past 30 years. To minimise the risk of liquefaction, shipping standards specify a transportable moisture limit (TML), which is the maximum moisture content for ore cargoes to be loaded onto a ship. However, the mechanics leading to the liquefaction of these cargoes is not well understood. This study uses an unsaturated soil mechanics perspective to understand the cyclic liquefaction behaviour of partially saturated materials, similar in grading to iron ore fines, a metallic ore that is known to liquefy during shipping transportation. Iron ore fines are transported at relatively low densities and have variable gradings containing a wide range of particle sizes and fines contents. Therefore, the effects of the degree of saturation and the fines content on the cyclic liquefaction behaviour of well-graded materials have been investigated by performing unsaturated, compression-only cyclic triaxial tests on samples prepared with four different gradings containing particle sizes from 9.5 mm to 2 μm with fines (<75 μm) contents of 18%, 28%, 40% and 60%. The trends in the data are discussed and used to develop a simple method that can conservatively estimate the number of cycles that samples with different degrees of saturation and fines contents are able to resist. The use of this method to describe the liquefaction behaviour of cargoes containing iron ore fines, in practice, is discussed.     

基于散体材料性质的土石混填路基压实度快速检测方法

 基于静力贯入试验检测土石混填路基压实度是目前实现压实度快速检测的有效方法,但其检测原理有待深入研究,因此,首先基于现有散体材料应力传递机制的研究,假设应力在路基土石混合料中以曲线圆锥的形式向下扩散传递,建立适合土石混填路基散体材料的应力分析方法,其次,基于孔隙介质力学理论,建立变形模量、泊松比及孔隙率随路基变形而变化的规律,并引入分层总和法及分级加载思想,建立土石混填路基荷载–沉降分析模型即P-s解析关系,然后,结合路基静力贯入试验测得的P-s试验曲线,利用自适应模拟退火优化方法反演获得路基初始孔隙率,从而建立基于散体材料性质的土石混填路基压实度快速检测方法,该方法避免了繁琐的标定试验,且检测精度可满足工程要求,最后,通过现场实测结果以及本文与现有方法分析结果的比较分析,表明了提出方法的合理性与可行性。     

A simplified approach for evaluating the bearing performance of encased granular columns

Tensile resistant materials used to encase cylindrical granular columns significantly improve column strength. For an encased granular column subjected to axial load, the axial deformation and volumetric expansion causes lateral expansion, which induces circumferential strain and stress in the encasement and provides additional confining pressure to the column.     

A comparative performance study of some thermal storage materials used for solar space heating

One of the most common methods used in passive heating is the utilization of a massive wall for heat storage. Many factors affect the performance of the wall, such as the thickness and the media used for heat storage. A numerical study has been conducted on a zone heated by a thermal storage wall. Three different storage materials are examined, namely concrete, the hydrated salt CaCl₂·6H₂O and paraffin wax (N-eicosane). A numerical model is presented in this paper which judges the suitability of these materials as thermal storage mediums under the actual weather conditions of Iraq. For that purpose, the room temperature fluctuation in the zone is evaluated for each material using different thickness for each wall. The study concluded that an 8-cm-thick storage wall made from the hydrated salt is capable of maintaining the comfort temperature in the zone with the least room temperature fluctuation.     

Development and numerical validation of a new model for walls with phase change materials implemented in TRNSYS

This paper presents a model of a wall with variable properties dedicated to modelling phase change materials (PCMs) in building envelopes. The model is implemented in the TRNSYS simulation tool and referred to as Type 3258. The 1-D conduction heat transfer equation is solved using an explicit finite-difference method coupled with an enthalpy method to consider the variable PCM thermal capacity. This model includes temperature-dependent thermal conductivity and PCM-specific effects like hysteresis and supercooling. The stability conditions are discussed and the algorithm implemented in TRNSYS is described. A numerical validation performed on wall test cases proposed by the International Energy Agency is presented, showing that the developed model is in agreement with reference models. The paper also discusses the impact of temporal and spatial discretization on the model performance. Modelling problems encountered when using an effective heat capacity method (compared to an enthalpy method) and when representing supercooling are also discussed.     

A statistical approach for the evaluation of the thermal behavior of dry assembled PCM containing walls

Adequate estimation of the energetic improvements which derived from the insertion of phase change materials (PCM) inside light dry assembled walls is an important step in order to quantify the comfort advantages that can derive from the use of such materials. The use of a statistic approach based fundamentally on the time series analysis method may represent a valid information instrument in support of all the technical analysis carried out in order to evaluate the effects of thermal inertia increase on the heat transmission process that occurs between the elements of a building. PCM containing walls, tested at the “Renewable Energies Outdoor Laboratory” of the Polytechnic University of Marche during the summer of 2003, present delicate problems relative to the identification of physical models relating to dynamics of heat exchange between building components. The application of a vector auto regressive (VAR) estimation model allows, using high frequency experimental data, obtaining consistent estimates regarding the physical phenomenon of energy exchange which intervene inside buildings—both between the walls, and through the walls—occurring during the observation period. The results of this approach are twofold: firstly, they demonstrate the existence of statistically significant linear dependencies among the variables used, and secondly, they highlight the comfort conditions’ improvements due to the insertion of PCM inside dry assembled walls.     

A miniature triaxial apparatus for investigating the micromechanics of granular soils with in situ X-ray micro-tomography scanning

The development of a miniature triaxial apparatus is presented. In conjunction with an X-ray micro-tomography (termed as X-ray μCT hereafter) facility and advanced image processing techniques, this apparatus can be used for in situ investigation of the micro-scale mechanical behavior of granular soils under shear. The apparatus allows for triaxial testing of a miniature dry sample with a size of \mathrm{8}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{mm}\times \mathrm{16}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{mm} (diameter \times height). In situ triaxial testing of a 0.4–0.8 mm Leighton Buzzard sand (LBS) under a constant confining pressure of 500 kPa is presented. The evolutions of local porosities (i.e., the porosities of regions associated with individual particles), particle kinematics (i.e., particle translation and particle rotation) of the sample during the shear are quantitatively studied using image processing and analysis techniques. Meanwhile, a novel method is presented to quantify the volumetric strain distribution of the sample based on the results of local porosities and particle tracking. It is found that the sample, with nearly homogenous initial local porosities, starts to exhibit obvious inhomogeneity of local porosities and localization of particle kinematics and volumetric strain around the peak of deviatoric stress. In the post-peak shear stage, large local porosities and volumetric dilation mainly occur in a localized band. The developed triaxial apparatus, in its combined use of X-ray μCT imaging techniques, is a powerful tool to investigate the micro-scale mechanical behavior of granular soils.     

三轴试验测定掺砾心墙料邓肯模型参数简化方法的探讨

提出一种能够缩短掺砾心墙料大三轴排水剪试验时间的方法,即降低掺砾心墙料中细粒的含量。掺砾心墙料的强度和变形主要取决于粗粒部分,试验表明,适量降低细粒的含量,没有改变原级配试样应力应变曲线的基本特征。而细粒含量的降低,可以有效地提高试验过程中的排水速率。给出了降低的细粒含量与渗透系数之间的关系,给出了降低细粒含量的掺砾心墙料大三轴试验步骤,以及确定邓肯模型参数的简化方法。     

A new prediction model for the load capacity of castellated steel beams

In this study, a robust variant of genetic programming, namely gene expression programming (GEP), is utilized to build a prediction model for the load capacity of castellated steel beams. The proposed model relates the load capacity to the geometrical and mechanical properties of the castellated beams. The model is developed based on a reliable database obtained from the literature. To verify the applicability of the derived model, it is employed to estimate the load capacity of parts of the test results that were not included in the modeling process. The external validation of the model was further verified using several statistical criteria recommended by researchers. A multiple least squares regression analysis is performed to benchmark the GEP-based model. A sensitivity analysis is further carried out to determine the contributions of the parameters affecting the load capacity. The results indicate that the proposed model is effectively capable of evaluating the failure load of the castellated beams. The GEP-based design equation is remarkably straightforward and useful for pre-design applications.     

A preliminary coupled MT-GA model for the prediction of highway runoff quality

Pollutants accumulated on road pavement during dry periods are washed off the surface with runoff water during rainfall events, presenting a potentially hazardous non-point source of pollution. Estimation of pollutant loads in these runoff waters is required for developing mitigation and management strategies, yet the numerous factors involved and their complex interconnected influences make straightforward assessment impossible. Data-driven models (DDMs) have lately been used in water and environmental research and have shown very good prediction ability. The proposed methodology of a coupled MT-GA (model tree-genetic algorithm) model provides an effective, accurate and easily calibrated predictive model for EMC (event mean concentration) of highway runoff pollutants. The models were trained and verified using a comprehensive data set of runoff events monitored in various highways in California, USA. EMCs of Cr, Pb, Zn, TOC and TSS were modeled, using different combinations of explanatory variables. The models' prediction ability in terms of correlation between predicted and actual values of both training and verification data was mostly higher than previously reported values. Sensitivity analysis was performed to examine the relative significance of each explanatory variable and the models' response to changes in input values.     

An artificial neural network model for the prediction of critical submergence for intake in a stratified fluid medium

Density differences may occur because of temperature differentials, suspended sediments, dissolved salts or other chemicals. Most of the large surface reservoirs are stably stratified throughout most, or all, of the year. One of the means of assisting the management is to allow a selective withdrawal from the reservoir. And while an intake is used for withdrawal (from the lower layer), a maximum discharge is required not allowing the uptake of the upper layer fluids. The value of the intake's vertical distance from the upper layer elevation (submergence) when the upper layer fluids begin to be drawn into the intake is known as ‘critical submergence’. In this study, the critical submergence for a circular intake pipe in a stratified body (which has different layer thickness) is investigated. Experiments were conducted on a vertically flowing downward intake pipe in a still-water reservoir. Artificial neural network (ANN) models and formulas, which are found by the theoretical analysis of critical spherical sink surface (CSSS), are used for the analysis of experimental results. The CSSS has the same centre and discharge as the intake. The ANN model and CSSS results are compared with the experimental results.     

矿区地表沉降灰色系统预测模型适用性——以陕西榆家梁煤矿为例

灰色系统理论模型是矿区地表沉降预测的重要方法之一,针对各种灰色系统理论模型在矿区地表沉降预测中的适用性问题,该文以灰色数列模型、GM(1,1)模型和灰色Verhulst模型为地表沉降预测模型,以陕西神木县榆家梁煤矿综采工作面地表沉降监测数据为数据源,开展了灰色系统理论模型预测对比研究.同时,以后验差比C和小误差概率P对...