Structural Morphologies and Deformaiton Characteristics of Semi‐solid Type 304 Stainless Steel during Solidificaiton and Remelting

Microstructural evolutions of type 304 stainless steel and the related mechanical property of flow stress in semi‐solid state are investigated. The evolutions of microstructure during solidification, partial remelting of a hot‐rolled billet and partial remelting of a cast billet are compared with respect to structural morphologies in the semi‐solid state. Various structural morphologies, such as the linear and multilayered liquid/austenite/δ‐ferrite structure, globular liquid/δ‐ferrite structure and dendrite structure, are characterized using optical micrographs and an EPMA (electron probe microanalyzer). The various structural morphologies in the semi‐solid state are influenced not only by the phase transformation but also by the previous treatment of type 304 steel, such as hot rolling and casting. Furthermore, a series of hot compression tests are conducted for various combinations of deformation rate and deformation temperature in the semi‐solid state, to measure the flow stress and the change in microstructure resulting from plastic deformation. Flow stress, phase segregation, microfracture and distortion of solid particles during and after the hot compression test are strongly affected by the structural morphology in the semi‐solid state, such as the dendrite structure, nonglobular structure and globular structure. Semi‐solid type 304 stainless steel with dendrite structure exhibits the highest flow stress, which is about three times that of steel with globular structure, although the testing temperature and deformation rate are controlled to be the same. This is a result of the higher bonding force between solid particles and lower fluidity of the liquid phase of the dendrite structure than those of the globular structure, which exhibits excellent fluidity of the liquid phase and rotation of solid particles.     

含硅镍低密度钢的温拉伸力学行为及强韧机制

 为了分析硅镍合金化奥氏体基低密度钢在中温环境下的拉伸变形行为,采用Instron电子拉力试验机对Fe-28.64Mn-8.99Al-1.68Si-1.39Ni-1.0C(Mn29Al9Si2Ni,质量分数/%)低密度钢在23~300 ℃下进行了温拉伸试验,研究了该钢的温拉伸力学行为,并采用SEM、TEM和热力学计算对该钢的强韧化机制进行了研究。结果表明,随着应变的增加,温拉伸应力-应变曲线主要包括弹性变形、均匀塑性变形和断裂等几个过程,没有明显的屈服现象。随着温度的提高,该钢的强度逐渐降低,塑性(断后伸长率)先增加后减小再升高,于200 ℃时出现塑性低谷,此时该钢的应力-应变曲线和应变硬化率曲线均具有明显的锯齿状特征,应变硬化率随应变的增加变化不大。而该钢在其他温度下的应力-应变曲线和应变硬化率曲线没有发现明显的“锯齿状”特征,应变硬化率随应变的增加而平缓下降。试验钢在23~300 ℃下的主要强韧化机制为κ-碳化物强化、应变强化、孪生诱发塑性和动态应变时效强化。较低温度下位错可动性较差对孪生诱发的促进作用、镍元素和硅元素对孪生的抑制作用、较高温度下孪生现象的减弱和温度对动态应变时效的促进或抑制作用等使得试验钢在23、100和300 ℃时存在明显的孪生诱发塑性,而在200 ℃时存在明显的动态应变时效强化的主要原因。动态应变时效强化是该钢在200 ℃时出现塑性低谷的主要原因。     

The cyclic deformation and fatigue behaviour of the low carbon steel SAE 1045 in the temperature regime of dynamic strain ageing

The cyclic deformation behaviour of normalized SAE 1045 steel (german steel grade Ck 45) has been investigated over a range of temperatures between 20 and 375°C. Special attention has been paid to the effects of dynamic strain ageing, which are most pronounced around 300°C. Different types of deformation tests (tension tests, incremental step tests, and constant amplitude cyclic deformation tests under stress control with a stress amplitude of 400 MPa as well as under plastic strain control with a plastic strain amplitude of 0.5%) were carried out to observe the influence of temperature on the macroscopic mechanical behaviour. These tests were followed by TEM studies on microstructural features. In the temperature range of maximum dynamic strain ageing, the material was found to show maximum strength in unidirectional as well as in cyclic deformation tests. While the fatigue life is maximum at the temperature of maximum dynamic strain ageing in stress-controlled tests, it is minimum in plastic strain controlled tests. At the temperature of maximum dynamic strain ageing around 300°C, the dislocations are arranged in dense dislocation tangles and parallel dislocation walls, whereas at room and at higher temperatures (375°C) mainly dislocation cell structures are observed.     

Stress relaxation of an AISI 1080 steel

Stress relaxation is a simple test which offers means for evaluating the deformation dynamics of materials. The principal advantage of this method is that it scans a broad range of strain rates while straining the specimen by only a small amount. Therefore, it is possible to assume that the substructure of the material remains approximately constant during the test in order to obtain the stress as a function of the strain rate during this particular strain condition. The principal inconvenience of this test is the requirement of a highly stable testing machine—especially at very slow strain rates. In the present investigation, stress relaxation tests have been done at room temperature on an AISI 1080 steel fabricated by Companhia Belgo-Mineira and used for prestressed concrete. The tests were done using a servohydraulic machine in the strain control mode. The results indicate the existence of a mechanical equation of state.     

高碳钢的流动应力模型研究

利用THERMECMASTOR-Z热模拟实验机，用w（C）为0．8％左右的高碳钢进行热模拟实验，测定高碳钢在热加工条件下，流动应力与变形温度、变形程度、应变速率等影响因素间的关系；对实验数据进行分析，确定影响流动应力的主要因素及数学模型的结构形式，通过非线性回归分析，建立流动应力数学模型，模型预报结果与实测结果吻合。     

DTA‐Measurements to Determine the Thixoformability of Steels

Semi‐solid metallurgy (SSM), also known as “thixoforming” or “thixoprocessing”, is of special interest as a new potential manufacturing technology for components in the automobile, machine and electronic industries. The aim of this technology is to produce complex shapes which cannot be produced with conventional processing methods. An important process step of semi‐solid processing (SSP) is the reheating and isothermal holding of the billet within the solid‐liquid range in order to obtain the required fraction liquid content and the desired globular microstructure. Aside from the investigation of billet heating and the development of a suitable tool design, the development and evaluation of adequate microstructures over a wide temperature area is very important. The focus of this paper is to determine the semi‐solid area of different steels through Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) measurements. To determine a process window for handling the alloys in the semi‐solid state, the DTA‐results can be combined with microstructure parameters. Subsequent quenching experiments show the development of the microstructure parameters (e.g. grain size, phase distribution, volume fraction, shape factor, matrix character, contiguity, and particle density of the primary solid and liquid phases). A comparison of the slopes of the determined solid‐liquid areas for different steels show the width of the melting or freezing intervals to evaluate the possible process windows. DTA‐experiments performed at different heating rates show the influence of faster heating and cooling rates on the solidus‐liquidus interval. To evaluate the suitability for the thixoforming processes, this paper describes, and then compares, the semi‐solid intervals of different steel grades, which have been investigated in the Department of Ferrous Metallurgy at the RWTH Aachen University. The tool steel HS 6‐5‐3 and the cold work tool steel X210CrW12 have a wide semi‐solid area, which can be explained due to the dissolution of different carbides. In contrast to this, the steels C45, 42CrMo4, 16MnCr5, 34CrNiMo4, 100Cr6, X220CrVMo13‐4 and the Alloy 33 show a much smaller semi‐solid area.     

T91钢的高温塑性变形及动态再结晶行为

采用Gleeble-1500热模拟试验机进行了T91钢的压缩试验,研究了变形温度为1100~1250℃、应变速率为0.01~1 s^-1时该钢的变形行为,分析了流变应力与应变速率和变形温度之间的关系,计算了高温变形时应力指数和变形激活能,并采用Zener-Hollomon参数法构建该钢高温塑性变形的本构关系,绘制了动态再结晶图和热加工图.结果表明:在试验变形条件范围内,其真应力-真应变曲线呈双峰特征;钢中发生了明显的动态再结晶,且再结晶类型属于连续动态再结晶.T91钢的热变形激活能为484 kJ.mol^-1,利用加工图确定了热变形的流变失稳区,结合力学性能,可以优先选择的变形温度为1200~1 250℃,应变速率不高于0.1 s^-1.     

316L不锈钢动态再结晶行为

在Gleeble-1500热模拟试验机上,通过高温压缩实验对316L不锈钢的动态再结晶行为进行了系统研究.结果表明:316L不锈钢热变形加工硬化倾向性较大,在真应力应变曲线上没有出现明显的应力峰值σ_p;316L不锈钢在热变形过程中发生了动态再结晶,但只是在局部区域观察到了动态再结晶晶粒.对动态再结晶的实验数据进行拟合,得到316L不锈钢的热激活能和热变形方程,并给出了发生动态再结晶的临界应变和临界应力以及Zener-Hollomon参数和稳态应力的关系.     

Multistage High‐speed Compression Test to obtain Material Data for the Kinetics of Microstructure Change in Microscale analysis of Large‐strain Working Technologies

A new analytical model for predicting microstructure change is proposed, and the actual steel microstructure changes that evolve during multistage and single‐stage high‐speed compression are analysed by EBSP (Electron Back Scattering Pattern). Severe plastic deformation induces evolution of various microstructure changes. Prediction of the changes requires the micro‐scale analysis of large‐strain working technologies and accurate material data, which are usually collected by conducting experiments such as compression tests. The analytical model uses the residual dislocation density and austenite grain size as parameters, and can be used to analyse the ferrite nucleation and transformation inside the grains. The compression tests were performed using a newly developed machine that can realize multistage forming at high strain rates. The precision of the data from the tests can be expected to be higher than that from conventional tests. Through the investigation, it becomes clear that multistage high‐speed forming can produce ultrafine‐grain steel whose chemical composition is the same as plain carbon steel, when applying the kinetics of microstructure change shown in the analytical model.     

Experimental and Numerical Failure Criteria for Sheet Metal Forming

For sheet metal forming, often the forming limit diagram (FLD) is used as failure criterion as it can be derived easily in experiments. It is based on the assumption that localization of strain in the sheet plane is responsible for crack initiation, but application of FLD is limited to linear strain paths. Hence, only forming processes with approximately the same deformation history as the experiments carried out for FLD determination should be evaluated by this criterion. Forming limit stress diagrams (FLSD) do not exhibit such strict limitations. They are based on the assumption that principal stresses in the sheet plane are responsible for crack initiation. As these stresses are usually calculated by FE analysis using elastic plastic material laws, strain hardening is considered. Two‐step forming tests as application examples prove the FLSD to be adequate for evaluation of non‐linear forming processes with alternating forming directions. Nevertheless, FLSD are derived in extensive investigations which makes them unattractive for most industrial applications. Furthermore, both FLD and FLSD do not consider the physical background of ductile crack initiation which is provoked by an interaction of local stress triaxiality and equivalent plastic strain. Hence, a reliable failure criterion should concentrate on these two parameters. The Gurson‐Tvergaard‐Needleman‐ (GTN‐) damage model can predict crack initiation during sheet metal forming. Application of the GTN model to 2 step forming tests with the bake hardening steel H220BD+Z showed good agreement to experimental results although a sensitivity of the model to mesh size and stress triaxiality is observed.     

Work hardening and mechanical equation of state in some metals in monotonic loading

The work hardening coefficients of Type 316 stainless steel niobium, and 1100 aluminum alloy are measured in tensile tests. It is demonstrated experimentally that in the measured stress, plastic strain rate, and temperature range the work hardening coefficient depends only on the stress and plastic strain rate. The significance of the experimental results is discussed in terms of the concept of the mechanical equation of state for plastic deformation.     

Physical simulation of hot deformation, and microstructural evolution for 42CrMo4 steel prior to direct quenching

 Direct quenching and tempering (DQ-T) of hot rolled steel section has been widely used in steel mill for the sake of improvement of mechanical properties and energy saving. Temperature history and microstructural evolution during hot-rolling plays a major role on the properties of direct quenched and tempered products. The mathematical and physical modeling of hot forming processes is becoming a very important tool for design and development of required products as well as to predict the microstructure and the properties of the components. These models were mostly applied to predict austenite grain size (AGS), dynamic, meta-dynamic and static recrystallization in the rods immediately after hot rolling and prior to DQ process. In this paper the hot compression tests were carried on 42CrMo4 steel in the temperature range of 900 - 1100°C and the strain rate range of 0.05 - 1 s- 1 in order to study the high temperature softening behavior of the steel. For the exact prediction of flow stress, the effective stress - effective strain curves were obtained from experiments under various conditions. On the basis of experimental results, the dynamic recrystallization fraction (DRX), AGS, hot deformation and activation energy behavior were investigated. It was found that the calculated results were in a good agreement with the experimental flow stress and microstructure of the steel for different conditions of hot deformation.     

Deformation Characteristics of Steel Billets with Liquid Core

To investigate the deformation characteristics of billets with liquid core during soft reduction and to clarify the correlation between internal cracks and deformation of the billet in the mushy zone, a fully coupled thermo‐mechanical Finite Element Model was developed in ABAQUS, furthermore, casting and soft reduction tests were carried out in a laboratory strand casting machine. During soft reduction the temperature distribution, the stress and strain states in the billet were calculated, the deformation characteristics of the billet during soft reduction were determined and the relation between internal cracks and equivalent plastic strain as well as maximal principal stress was analysed. The results show that tensile stresses can develop in the mushy zone during soft reduction and the equivalent strain nearby the Zero Ductility Temperature (ZDT) increases with a decreasing solid fraction. Internal cracks can be initiated when the accumulated strain exceeds the critical strain and /or the applied tensile stress exceeds the critical fracture stress during solidification. In addition, the factors (reduction efficiency and internal cracks) that should be considered to determine the optimal parameter for the soft reduction were established.     

20CrMnTiH钢唯象本构模型及动态再结晶行为

 采用Gleeble-3800热模拟试验机对20CrMnTiH钢进行了等温热压缩试验,研究了该钢在变形温度为850～1 150 ℃、应变速率为0.01～10 s－1条件下的高温热变形行为,运用数学回归方法和热力学不可逆原理,建立了20CrMnTiH钢应变补偿的唯象本构方程和动态再结晶模型,并对该应变补偿的唯象本构模型进行了有效验证。在真应力-真应变曲线中,变形温度和应变速率对20CrMnTiH钢的流变应力影响显著,表现出正的应变速率敏感性和负的温度敏感性;由本构模型计算得到的流变应力值与试验值两者之间有很好的相关性[(R＝0.976 64),]平均相对误差为5.544 2%;在应变硬化速率与流变应力关系曲线中,利用单一参数法和求解拐点法获得了不同变形条件下动态再结晶的临界应力[σc]和临界应变[εc]值,建立了临界应力、临界应变和Zener-Hollomon参数的数学模型[ε≥εc＝][0.007 9 lnZ－0.153 23,]且临界应变[εc]随着温度补偿应变速率因子[Z]的增加而增加。     

Plastic and viscous deformation of metals

Deformation characteristics of tensile specimens of several alloys, including electrolytic copper, α-brass, and 304 stainless steel, have been studied by application of stress and measurement of change of length in a soft tensile machine. By means of experiments in which the stress rate is reduced suddenly from a positive value to zero and the strain rate measured, both during loading and during creep, it is found that permanent deformation consists of two components, a plastic component for which the strain rate is a function of stress and stress rate, and a viscous component which is functionally dependent on stress and temperature. Plastic deformation is relatively more evident at increasing stress rate but declines in importance through the series copper, a-brass, and stainless steel. As a consequence, for a fixed strain rate during loading, the initial creep rate is low in copper and little creep occurs; in stainless steel, however, the initial creep rate is nearly equal to the loading strain rate and creep is pronounced. The theory is not fully developed but is based on a competition between thermal and mechanical release of dislocation segments from obstacles or sources. Release produces a strain increment which may be small or large depending on the relative values of stress and structural resistance. Plastic deformation occurs when the applied stress is close to the mechanical threshold, mechanical release is relatively easy, and the strain consists, at a given strain rate, of a few large strain increments per unit time. For viscous flow the relative stress is low, thermal release easy, and the strain rate is composed of many small strain increments in each unit of time.     

1650板坯压下过程热/力学行为及压下工艺优化

为了控制梅钢1 650板坯连铸包晶钢过程铸坯内裂纹发生,基于梅钢1 650板坯连铸机生产实际,建立了1 560mm×230mm断面包晶钢铸坯凝固过程三维热/力耦合有限元模型,揭示了铸坯凝固过程各冷却区内的温度场分布规律和铸坯压下过程应力与变形行为演变规律。结果表明,铸坯在结晶器及零段内冷却强度大,沿拉坯及其垂直方向的温度分布梯度大;在实施铸坯凝固末端压下过程中,铸坯宽面中心与宽向1/4处的表面变形及应力变化较为同步,且靠近铸坯内弧侧凝固前沿的塑性应变最大,铸坯应力最大值集中在角部区域;目前梅钢包晶钢连铸压下区间设置不当,易引发铸坯产生内部裂纹。     

Influence of Strain Rate,Temperature, Plastic Strain,and Microstructure on the Strain Rate Sensitivity of Automotive Sheet Steels

This work identifies the influence of strain rate, temperature, plastic strain, and microstructure on the strain rate sensitivity of automotive sheet steel grades in crash conditions. The strain rate sensitivity m has been determined by means of dynamic tensile tests in the strain rate range 10^?3–200 s^?1 and in the temperature range 233–373 K. The dynamic flow curves have been tested by means of servohydraulic tensile testing. The strain rate sensitivity decreases with increasing plastic strain due to a gradual exhausting of work hardening potential combined with adiabatic softening effects. The strain rate sensitivity is improved with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate, according to the thermally activated deformation mechanism. The m‐value is reduced with increasing strength level, this decrease being most pronounced for steels with a yield strength below 400 MPa. Solid solution alloying with manganese, silicon, and especially phosphorous elements lowers the strain rate sensitivity significantly. Second phase hardening with bainite and martensite as the second constituent in a ferritic matrix reduces the strain rate sensitivity of automotive sheet steels. A statistical modeling is proposed to correlate the m‐value with the corresponding quasistatic tensile flow stress.     

700MPa微合金高强钢奥氏体高温变形行为研究

研究了一种700 MPa微合金高强钢。在热力模拟试验机上进行了试验钢的单道次压缩试验,通过其各种变形参数的研究,建立了试验钢的变形抗力数学模型和动态再结晶模型。试验结果显示:试验钢在变形温度为950℃,应变速率为0.1 s-1;变形温度为1 000℃,应变速率为0.1 s-1;变形温度为1 050℃,应变速率为0.1s-1或1 s-1;变形温度为1 100℃,应变速率为0.1 s-1、1 s-1或5 s-1这几种条件下会发生动态再结晶。     

Q345E钢奥氏体动态再结晶行为研究及数学模型的建立

利用Gleeble-3800热模拟试验机对低合金高强度结构钢Q345E在1150~800℃之间的奥氏体动态再结晶及动态相变行为进行研究。确定了试验钢Q345E奥氏体动态再结晶的临界应变条件;研究了变形温度、应变速率等变形条件对试验钢奥氏体动态再结晶的影响,通过高温热力学模拟试验得到了Q345E钢在不同变形条件下的流动应力曲线,得出了动态再结晶激活能为467.767kJ/mol,通过对实验数据的拟合回归分析,建立了动态再结晶热变形模型和峰值应力、峰值应变与Z因子的关系,为控制该钢的组织和性能提供了基本依据。     

半固态高碳工具钢的变形特性

采用Gleeble-1500热/力模拟机，对电磁搅拌法制备的高碳(碳含量大于1％)工具钢半固态坯料进行压缩实验，研究半固态高碳钢在不同变形温度、不同变形速率下的应力一应变关系，同时与相同冷却条件下的常规铸态坯料进行了对比分析。结果表明：在固一液两相区变形时，半固态坯料的流变应力明显低于常规铸态坯料，且随温度的升高而降低；当变形速率降低时，应力峰值升高，同时热软化现象明显。