Structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition among a national sample of referred students.

The structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC–IV; D. Wechsler, 2003a) was analyzed via confirmatory factor analysis among a national sample of 355 students referred for psychoeducational evaluation by 93 school psychologists from 35 states. The structure of the WISC–IV core battery was best represented by four first-order factors as per D. Wechsler (2003b), plus a general intelligence factor in a direct hierarchical model. The general factor was the predominate source of variation among WISC–IV subtests, accounting for 48% of the total variance and 75% of the common variance. The largest 1st-order factor, Processing Speed, only accounted for 6.1% total and 9.5% common variance. Given these explanatory contributions, recommendations favoring interpretation of the 1st-order factor scores over the general intelligence score appear to be misguided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigation of the factor structure of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS–IV): Exploratory and higher order factor analyses.

The present study examined the factor structure of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS–IV; D. Wechsler, 2008a) standardization sample using exploratory factor analysis, multiple factor extraction criteria, and higher order exploratory factor analysis (J. Schmid & J. M. Leiman, 1957) not included in the WAIS–IV Technical and Interpretation Manual (D. Wechsler, 2008b). Results indicated that the WAIS–IV subtests were properly associated with the theoretically proposed first-order factors, but all but one factor-extraction criterion recommended extraction of one or two factors. Hierarchical exploratory analyses with the Schmid and Leiman procedure found that the second-order g factor accounted for large portions of total and common variance, whereas the four first-order factors accounted for small portions of total and common variance. It was concluded that the WAIS–IV provides strong measurement of general intelligence, and clinical interpretation should be primarily at that level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Orthogonal higher order structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--Fourth edition.

According to J. B. Carroll's (1993) 3-stratum theory, performance on any subtest reflects a mixture of both 2nd-order and 1st-order factors. To disentangle these influences, variance explained by the general factor should be extracted first. The 1st-order factors are then residualized, leaving them orthogonal to the general factor and each other. When these methods were applied to the WISC-IV standardization sample, the general factor accounted for the greatest amount of common (71.3%) and total (38.3%) variance. The largest contribution by a first-order factor was 6.5% of total variance. It was recommended that interpretation of the WISC-IV not discount the strong general factor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The PANAS structure revisited: On the validity of a bifactor model in community and forensic samples.

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a widely used inventory for the assessment of affect in psychology and other applied sciences. Despite its popularity, the structure of the PANAS is still under debate. On the one hand, there is evidence of the traditional 2-factor model with Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) as uncorrelated factors. On the other hand, a more complex structure of the PANAS has been discussed. To shed further light on the core dimensions of the PANAS, 2 studies investigated the structure of the PANAS in 2 German samples (N = 354 and N = 364, respectively) by means of confirmatory factor analysis. The factor analysis results of Study 1 for a traitlike time frame instruction suggested a suboptimal model fit for the uncorrelated 2-factor model and the 3-factor model with PA, Afraid, and Upset as factors, whereas a superior model fit occurred for a bifactor model with traitlike PA, NA, and a general 3rd factor named Affective Polarity. In Study 2, the bifactor model was replicated for a statelike PANAS time frame instruction and evidence of criterion validity was provided for PA, NA, and Affective Polarity factors in 2 sex offender subgroups and in a community sample. With Affective Polarity, we introduce an affect dimension that captures additional variance beyond PA and NA. Because of the adjectives with relevant loadings on Affective Polarity, this general factor represents an individual's orientation toward approach and withdrawal, respectively. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Potential of and problems with new measures of psychometric intelligence after traumatic brain injury.

Objective: Examination of the concurrent and criterion validities of the General Ability Measure for Adults (GAMA) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third Edition (WAIS–III) in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Study Design: Correlational methods and multivariate analyses of variance. Setting: Regional rehabilitation center. Participants: Prospective series of consecutive rehabilitation referrals, including 60 adults with TBI and no confounding premorbid histories. Main Outcome Measures: GAMA and WAIS–III IQ and factor index scores were obtained within 1 year after injury and were compared with each other and with measures of injury severity. Results: GAMA and WAIS–III summary IQ scores demonstrated substantial covariance (supporting concurrent validity), but neither was sufficiently sensitive to injury severity. The WAIS–III Processing Speed (PS) index was the only measure that clearly demonstrated criterion validity. Conclusions: GAMA and WAIS–III summary IQ scores measure similar abilities but may not be sensitive to degree of injury severity in individuals with TBI. In contrast, the WAIS–III PS index appears to have promise in the evaluation of sequelae of TBI. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis of the WAIS-R.

A simultaneous maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis of intercorrelations among the 11 subtests of the WAIS–R was undertaken in the 9 age groups in the normative sample (D. Wechsler, 1981). Several models were fit to the data and compared, including a single-factor model; orthogonal and oblique 2-factor models, comprised of the Verbal and Performance subtests, respectively; an orthogonal and 2 oblique 3-factor models, the 3rd factor involving the Digit Span, Arithmetic, and Digit Symbol subtests; a 3-factor model, composed of a general intellectual factor and Verbal and Performance factors; and a 4-factor model, consisting of both a general factor and 3 common ability factors (Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, and Memory/Freedom from Distractability). Results suggest that (a) the single-factor model fits the data fairly well, although there is some misspecification in this model; (b) none of the multifactor models fit the data markedly better than the single-factor model; and (c) the single-factor structure is consistent across the age groups. It is concluded that the WAIS–R largely contains a general intellectual factor and that any common ability factors therein play a minor role in influencing WAIS–R subscale scores. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensionality in the measurement of authoritarian and political attitudes.

Administered 300 items from major inventories of authoritarian and political attitudes (e.g., the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale) to 135 undergraduates. The 300 items were reduced to 77 by selecting those with major factor loadings. Refactoring the 77 produced 25 1st-order factors and 10 2nd-order factors. The 1st-order factors typically referred to groupings of specific attitudes while 2nd-order factors referred to broad patterns which transcend a variety of attitudes. 4 major 2nd-order factors were identified as Religiosity, Political-Economic Liberalism, Authoritarianism, and Restrictiveness; these were found to differentiate Ss according to political and religious affiliations. Examination of items loading on the factors was considered to support the concept of the authoritarian personality but provided less support for M. Rokeach's concepts. The Melvin-Eysenck 2-factor model did not offer enough dimensions to account for the major sources of authoritarian and political attitudes. (French summary) (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Replication of the factor structure of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Third Edition with a Canadian Sample.

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Third Edition (WAIS—III) were conducted on a stratified sample of Canadian adults (n?=?718). As was previously demonstrated for the children's version of this scale, The factor model of the American standardization sample was replicated across this Canadian national sample. Results of the factor analyses confirmed the presence of the 4 WAIS—III factors: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the clinician-administered PTSD Scale: Evidence for the dimensionality of posttraumatic stress disorder.

The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS; Blake et al., 1990) is a structured interview that assesses the 17 key symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD) as established in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM–IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). CAPS data from 524 treatment-seeking male military veterans were submitted to confirmatory factor analysis to test a series of nested models reflecting alternative representations of PTSD dimensionality: (a) a 4-factor, 1st-order solution; (b) a 2-factor, higher order solution; (c) a single-factor, higher order solution; and (d) a single-factor, 1st-order solution. The model of best fit was the 4-factor, 1st-order solution, containing moderately to highly correlated yet distinct 1st-order factors corresponding to the reexperiencing, effortful avoidance, emotional numbing, and hyperarousal aspects of PTSD. Implications for theory, assessment, and future research are presented in this article. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The General (g), Broad, and Narrow CHC Stratum Characteristics of the WJ III and WISC-III Tests: A Confirmatory Cross-Battery Investigation.

One hundred, forty-eight randomly selected children (grades three-five) were administered the WISC-III, WJ III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, WJ III Tests of Achievement, and seven research tests selected from the WJ III Diagnostic Supplement. The validity of the existing WISC-III and WJ III broad Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) test classifications was investigated via the application of CHC-organized, broad-factor, cross-battery confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). Likewise, the validity of the WISC-III and WJ III narrow CHC ability classifications was investigated via the evaluation of a three-stratum hierarchical (narrow+broad+g) CHC CFA cross-battery model. The Tucker-Lewis Index, the Comparison Fit Index, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation evaluated the fit for the resulting models. All statistical values indicated good to excellent fit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A structural equation analysis of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised.

A maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis was performed by applying LISREL VII to the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT; A. S. Kaufman & N. L. Kaufman, 1990) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R; D. Wechsler, 1981). Analyses were designed to determine which of six hypothesized oblique factor solutions would best explain the pattern of relationships among different combinations of K-BIT and WAIS—R subtests in a neurologically disordered sample (N?=?186). Results indicated that a 4-factor model including K-BIT Verbal Intelligence, and WAIS—R Verbal Intelligence, Nonverbal Intelligence, and Freedom From Distractibility factors provided the best fit to the data. The K-BIT Verbal Intelligence factor appeared to have a significant visuospatial component, calling into question the assumption that the WAIS—R and K-BIT provide equivalent measures of verbal intelligence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A reexamination of the WAIS—R factor structure.

The factor structure of Wechsler's Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R) has been a subject of controversy since the instrument was first published. We performed a series of restricted factor analyses on the 9 cohorts of the WAIS—R standardization sample in an effort to investigate the structure of this instrument. Several indices of fit were used including (a) the likelihood ratio test statistic, chi-square; (b) the LISREL Goodness of Fit Index; (c) the normed-fit index, with both a null and informed baseline; (d) the rescaled Akaike and Schwartz criteria; and (e) the root mean square residual. Results indicated that a 3-factor model accounts best for the relations among the 11 WAIS—R subtests in 8 of the 9 standardization cohorts. The 3 factors correspond to the Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, and Memory/Freedom From Distractibility factors that have been identified in the WAIS. Factor comparison procedures were used to test the generalizability of this structure in psychiatric and medical samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A reexamination of the factor structure of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: Is a one-factor model plausible?

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES–D) is one of the most widely used measures of depressive symptoms in research today. The original psychometric work in support of the CES–D (Radloff, 1977) described a 4-factor model underlying the 20 items on the scale. Despite a long history of evidence supporting this structure, researchers routinely report single-number summaries from the CES–D. The research described in this article examines the plausibility of 1-factor model using an initial sample of 595 subjects and a cross-validation sample of 661. After comparing a series of models found in the literature or suggested by analyses, we determined that the good fit of the 4-factor model is mostly due to its ability to model excess covariance associated with the 4 reverse-scored items. A 2-factor model that included a general depression factor and a positive wording method factor loading only on those 4 items had fit that was nearly as good as the original 4-factor model. We conclude that although a 1-factor model may not be the best model for the full 20-item CES–D, it is at least plausible. If a unidimensional set of items is required (e.g., for a unidimensional item response theory analysis), by dropping 5 items, we were able to find a 1-factor model that had very similar fit to the 4-factor model with the original 20 items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of general and broad cognitive abilities on mathematics achievement.

This study investigated the direct and indirect effects of general intelligence and 7 broad cognitive abilities on mathematics achievement. Structural equation modeling was used to investigate the simultaneous effects of both general and broad cognitive abilities on students' mathematics achievement. A hierarchical model of intelligence derived from the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) taxonomy of intelligence was used for all analyses. The participants consisted of 4 age-differentiated subsamples (ranging from ages 5 to 19) from the standardization sample of the Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ III; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001). Data from each of the 4 age-differentiated subsamples were divided into 2 data sets. At each age level, one data set was used for model testing and modification, and a second data set was used for model validation. The following CHC broad cognitive ability factors demonstrated statistically significant direct effects on the mathematics achievement variables: Fluid Reasoning, Crystallized Intelligence, and Processing Speed. In contrast, across all age levels, the general intelligence factor demonstrated indirect effects on the mathematics achievement variable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mayo's Older Americans Normative Studies (MOANS): Factor structure of a core battery.

Confirmatory factor analyses were completed separately with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R) and the Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised (WMS—R). Confirmatory factor analyses were also performed on a "core battery" composed of the WAIS—R, WMS—R, and the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) when administered together. Participants were from the MOANS, which include 526 healthy, community-dwelling people ages 55–97 yrs. LISREL analysis of the WAIS—R found a 3-factor model to be acceptable, supporting extension of the Verbal Comprehension (VC), Perceptual Organization (PO), and Freedom from Distractibility model of the WAIS—R to "normal" people ages 55–97 yrs. A 2-factor model of the WMS—R involving attention and general memory was supported. A 5-factor model of the core battery was supported and included VC, PO, Attention, Learning, and Retention. The Retention factor included Logical Memory, Visual Reproduction, and AVLT percent retention scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The latent symptom structure of the Beck Depression Inventory–II in outpatients with major depression.

The Beck Depression Inventory–II (BDI–II) is a self-report instrument frequently used in clinical and research settings to assess depression severity. Although investigators have examined the factor structure of the BDI–II, a clear consensus on the best fitting model has not yet emerged, resulting in different recommendations regarding how to best score and interpret BDI–II results. In the current investigation, confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate previously identified models of the latent symptom structure of depression as assessed by the BDI–II. In contrast to previous investigations, we utilized a reliably diagnosed, homogenous clinical sample, composed only of patients with major depressive disorder (N = 425)—the population for whom this measure of depression severity was originally designed. Two 3-factor models provided a good fit to the data and were further evaluated by means of factor associations with an external, interviewer-rated measure of depression severity. The results contribute to a growing body of evidence for the Ward (2006) model, including a General (G) depression factor, a Somatic (S) factor, and a Cognitive (C) factor. The results also support the use of the BDI–II total scale score. Research settings may wish to model minor factors to remove variance extraneous to depression where possible. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factor analysis of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised for persons 75 years and older.

We factor analyzed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R) protocols of 130 normal elderly. For age and education, Ms?=?81.24 years (SD?=?5.24) and 9.54 years (SD?=?2.50). Results indicated that the WAIS—R may be interpreted as a 1-, 2-, or 3-factor battery. In the 1-factor solution, interpretative emphasis was placed on the Full Scale IQ as a measure of g. In the 2-factor solution, a Verbal Comprehension factor consisted of Information, Digit Span, Vocabulary, Comprehension, and Similarities. A Perceptual Organization factor comprised Block Design, Object Assembly, and Digit Symbol. In the 3-factor solution, the subtest alignments for the Verbal Comprehension and Perceptual Organization factors remained highly similar, whereas Arithmetic constituted a Freedom From Distractibility factor. Overall, 1- or 2-factor models seem to offer the most plausible and parsimonious structures for this sample. Seven subtests had high or intermediate levels of specific variance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A note on the independence of stereotype and attitude.

Presented 43 attitude statements and 14 evaluative and 10 stereotypic bipolar trait-adjectives concerning French-Canadians to 67 male and 94 female Manitoba undergraduates. The 1st-order factor analysis produced a separation of the 3 measures, resulting in 3 attitude factors, an evaluative trait-adjective factor, and a stereotype factor. A 2nd-order factor analysis of the relations among primary factors resulted in 2 factors: (a) a general evaluative factor comprising the evaluative trait-adjective dimension and the 3 attitude dimensions from the 1st-order analysis, and (b) a factor clearly defined by the stereotype dimension. Implications of the present findings of relative independence of stereotype and attitude are discussed in relation to traditional methods of defining and assessing stereotypes. (French summary) (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)