Domestic water access and pricing in urban areas of Mozambique: between equity and cost recovery for the provision of a vital resource

This article first presents the urban domestic water access situation in Mozambique. Then it analyzes the country's tariff system as a tool to recover water supply costs and to secure equity and affordability for the urban households served. The analysis focused on those households with in-dwelling water access (less than 50% of the urban population in Mozambique). Urban families using 5 m³, 10 m³, and 15 m³ of in-dwelling piped water per month pay an average of USD 0.86, 0.74, and 0.76 per m³, respectively. At the national level, cost recovery is an issue because in most urban areas operation and maintenance costs are not fully covered. The average coverage ratio for the country is 0.85. The presented figures indicate that a revision of the water tariffs currently applied in Mozambique could help improve equity, affordability and cost recovery.     

The energy trade-offs of adapting to a water-scarce future: case study of Los Angeles

Abstract

Increasing water competition, population growth and global climate change will intensify the tension between water and energy resources in arid climates of the world, since energy costs underscore the challenges facing water security in dry regions. In few places is the tension between water and energy resources more pronounced than in Los Angeles, California. This article analyzes the city’s current water supply and estimates its future energy requirements based on water supply projections from the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. Results suggest that while increasing local water management strategies could reduce the future energy intensity of the water supply, an increased reliance on water transfers could worsen its future energy intensity.     

Water footprint for Korean rice products and virtual water trade in a water-energy-food nexus

ABSTRACT

One possible approach for addressing water and food insecurity involves food production, trade, and water used elsewhere. In this study, we introduce a water footprint for Korean rice products and focus on the impacts of localized cultivation and water supply systems on the water footprint. In addition, we discuss several studies on the application of water footprint and virtual water trade in water and food management in Korea. Finally, we suggest the role of water footprint and virtual water trade in sustainable resource management through a water-energy-food nexus approach.     

Ecological Engineering in Water Resources

Abstract

Ecological engineering is a relatively unfamiliar; cost-effective strategy for tackling the “second generation” of water resource problems. It can be defined as the design, construction, operation, and management of landscape/aquatic structures and associated plant and animal communities to benefit humanity and nature. It is introduced by comparing it with “conventional” engineering, including case studies with cost and performance data. Ecological engineering can offer important potential advantages: better performance, less cost, multiple benefits, and better acceptance by the public and regulators. It can cost less because structures are sometimes not as highly engineered and are durable and self-maintaining. Natural energy sources and self-regulating processes reduce operation and maintenance costs. The ancillary benefits can be ecological, recreational, or economic. Case studies include a treatment of wetland to remove nitrogen from wastewater, a lakeshore stabilization project, and stream and riparian restoration via beaver reintroduction. The investigation concludes with a discussion of obstacles and caveats for ecological engineering.     

Water option contracts for climate change adaptation in Santiago,Chile

ABSTRACT

Climate change–induced extreme events pose an important challenge for urban water managers. In Santiago (Chile), the total cost of such events can be reduced by an option contract that sets ex ante water prices and water volumes to be traded when certain triggering conditions are met. This article discusses two types of option contracts: water leasing to trade water from agriculture to urban uses during droughts; and a savings option contract to reduce urban water consumption during short-term turbidity events. We find that water option contracts are flexible instruments that improve the distribution of hydrological risks.     

Factors Influencing Per Capita Water Consumption In Urban Areas Of Developing Countries And Their Implications For Management,With Special Reference To The Khartoum Metropolitan Area

ABSRTACT

The fast growing population in Third World countries and the limited physical resources in rural areas have led to the dramatic expansion of the urban areas of these countries. It is now recognized that when planning for the development of these areas, early consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of providing potable water equitably to all users. Detailed studies are necessary for particular situations so as to provide a basis for better management practices.

Khartoum, a growing urban area in Sudan, has been chosen as a case study. A proposed framework and technique of analysis is shown. Factors influencingper capita consumption are correlated and mathematical models have been generated for the two distinct classifictions of consumers: (1) consumers with piped supply and (2) consumers obtaining water from water vendors or from standpipes (squatter settlements).

The most significant factors affecting the consumption appear in the fitted equations. Of these factors, the number of occupants in the household influences the per capita consumption but at a decreasing rate. Price has a significant impact on demand: price elasticities of about -0.60 and -0.78 are obtained for households with piped connections and squatter areas respectively. Water utility authorities can use price as a tool to ration or discourage water consumption in the piped connection households and to increase the rate of consumption in the squatter areas.     

Water and Sustainable Development in Ghana

Abstract

Water is vital for the survival and development of every community or society. The health of a given community is reflected to a large extent in the water quality of the community's available water resources. In Ghana, efforts have been made since colonial days to supply both the urban and the rural communities with potable water to enhance the rapid socio-economic development of the country. It is economically viable due to the remoteness of most of the rural communities to supply them with potable water from local sources such as groundwater. The urban water supply systems are mainly based on surface water sources. With the ever-expanding population, there is a need to improve freshwater resources conservation and management in order to avoid impending shortages. To ensure the total coverage of all rural and urban communities by the year 2020, a huge capital outlay of $1 billion and 51.5 billion, respectively, is needed. Most of these funds are expected to come from the private sector, both local and foreign, with the Government making some substantial contribution.     

Community-based initiatives in the Dutch water domain: the challenge of double helix alignment

ABSTRACT

Community-based initiatives (CBIs) are emerging in many domains such as care, sustainable energy and water management. This paper examined three initiatives in Dutch water management, focusing on their relationship with water boards. CBIs present issues that water boards find difficult to respond to because of two reasons. First, CBIs are demarcated very differently from the formal tasks that water boards pursue. This calls for internal alignment within water boards to respond adequately. Second, CBIs necessitate external alignment with other water-managing governments. Water boards must therefore implement double helix alignment to relate productively to initiatives emerging in society.     

Transforming participation in water governance: the multisectoral alliances of rural water committees and NGOs in Nicaragua

Abstract

This paper examines new forms of political participation on the part of rural water committees in Nicaragua in the mid-2000s. In particular, it explores the role of multisectoral alliances in facilitating water committees’ (1) physical mobility and political visibility, (2) political and legal capacity-building, and (3) access to state channels of representation. Contributing to theories of social capital, this case reveals a transformation of participation in water governance from locally grounded collective action for water management to engagement in public policy processes. In practical terms, the paper casts lessons for improved water governance via more inclusive policy processes.     

Management of Watersheds and Water Resources Planning

ABSTRACT

Siltation of reservoirs is a consequence of poor management of watersheds. Four case studies have been highlighted in this study to indicate the reasons for increased siltation, such as population growth, deforestation, extensive agricultural operations, cattle grazing and soil erosion. Nizamsagar and Sriramsagar are reservoirs heavily silted due to lack of proper management practices in the watershed. Machkund and Tungabhadra are reservoirs in which siltation has been contained through systematic management of the watersheds. Procedures needed for managing watersheds in water resources projects have been derived based on the four case studies     

Energy for water utilization in China and policy implications for integrated planning

Abstract

Significant energy resources are needed for traditional and nontraditional water utilization in China. Yet the interlinkages between water and energy have not received adequate attention in the country. To address this gap, this article disaggregates and quantifies the magnitude and direction of energy and water flows in China at the national level through Sankey diagrams. Spatial distributions of energy use by different components of the water supply were further mapped at the provincial level to discern regional differences. The results of this study show that the total energy consumption by water abstraction, treatment and distribution, as well as waste treatment and reuse, amounts to 193.5 TWh of electricity, or about 4% of the total national electricity usage. The outcome of this study offers important policy implications for integrated water and energy planning and management and will contribute to achieving the goal of low-energy water utilization in the future.     

Integrated Resource Planning for Water and Wastewater

Abstract

This paper describes the use of integrated resource planning for water and wastewater service provision by a major urban water utility. This methodology aims to meet the water and sewerage needs of the community at the least cost and includes an explicit analysis of the costs and benefits of measures that reduce the demand for water and the discharge of wastewater effluent. It therefore requires disaggregation of the demand for water into end-uses and a consideration of the linkages between the water supply and sewerage components of the business. This approach has significant advantages in economic, environmental, and social terms. The case study results indicate that significant investments in water efficiency programs are justified on economic grounds, particularly where augmentation of water and sewerage infrastructure is planned. Three studies undertaken as part of Sydney Water's efforts to integrate supply- and demand-side planning are described in this paper: first, a major integrated resource planning exercise designed to reduce demand for water by up to 35 percent, costing more than AU$25 million; second, a case study in a series of small towns where the benefits arise from reducing the capacity of sewage treatment plants by reducing wastewater flow; and third, in a major industrial region where water efficiency measures integrated with reuse measures reduce overall costs.     

Water Pricing Under Joint Benefits

Abstract

A cubic functional form of an econometric model for residential water demand estimation is used in order to accommodate different price elasticities for different levels of water demand. Precise estimates of these different price elasticities offer a useful tool to water authorities for urban water demand management through price-based policies. Panel estimation methods (fixed and random effects) are employed to estimate model parameters. The results show that a cubic form of the demand equation can provide appropriate estimates of price elasticities for different “consumption groups” of residential customers. In addition, the effect of public awareness and information on water conservation is also evaluated after controlling other parameters affecting demand for water. Thus, another implication of this study is that well-informed consumers, aware of issues of water conservation and of techniques for water efficient use, may be more inclined to reduce their water consumption.     

Informal water markets and community management in peri-urban Luanda,Angola

ABSTRACT

The majority of Angola’s peri-urban population still rely on informal mechanisms for water supply. This water is expensive and of poor quality, representing a significant household expenditure for the urban poor. The article uses qualitative tools and tracking of the supply chain to analyze the scope of the informal water economy in Luanda. Marketing water at the local household level involves significant trading in social capital. A financially sustainable model of community water management that builds on this neighbourhood social capital has been adopted by the government for implementation across the country.     

Thirsty slums in African cities: household water insecurity in urban informal settlements of Lilongwe,Malawi

ABSTRACT

Over 70% of Malawi’s urban population lives in informal settlements, where households regularly face chronic water insecurity. This article utilizes mixed methods – household surveys (N = 645), field observations, focus groups and interviews – to examine household water insecurity in three urban informal settlements of Lilongwe, Malawi’s capital and largest city. The study finds that water insecurity arises from overdependence on communal water kiosks which are insufficient in number, have high nonfunctional rates, are prone to vandalism, and provide water irregularly; lack of alternative improved water sources; and a significant time burden due to long waiting times and multiple trips to water sources. The findings underscore why water insecurity in Africa’s urban informal settlements deserves urgent policy attention.     

Applying water soft path analysis in small urban areas: four Canadian case studies

Water soft paths begin from the vision that future water management has more to gain from reducing demand than from increasing supply. This article reviews three case studies of water soft path analysis in small urban areas in Canada, and one study of an urban planning process incorporating soft path concepts. The analytical studies indicate how communities can avoid the need for expansion of water infrastructure with negligible impacts on lifestyles or livelihoods. The planning study demonstrates that it is possible to introduce water soft paths early in a review, and that this will stimulate more ecologically sensitive thinking among citizens, officials and political leaders. Similar conclusions can be expected from soft path studies in urban areas elsewhere in the developed world.     

Economic Benefits of Reservoirs in the Irrigated Agriculture

Abstract

In the Jordan Valley of Jordan, the demand for water and ability to control its location, timing, quality, and quantity are becoming critical. The competition for water between the urban and agricultural sectors is increasing. There is a general trend in Jordan to reduce water allocated for agricultural use. Increasing the price of irrigation water or restricting the planted areas of water consuming crops, such as bananas, has been implemented during the recent growing season. The main objective of this paper is to highlight the impact of optimal allocation of irrigation water by building storage capacity on the economy of Jordan Valley. A linear programming technique is used, and the main results show that for proper management of water storage capacity, the suggested cropping pattern would generate $88.2 million, whereas the actual cropping pattern generated $74.4 million. The optimal water demand schedule is distributed according to the needs of the planted crops, and water demand has been allocated in an efficient way. In addition, appropriate management of storage capacity has solved the problem of water scarcity during the summer months, when peak production takes place. Storage-transfer system between locations played a significant role in reallocating irrigation water through the storage system. This compensates to a high degree in keeping the agricultural production more stable in physical and monetary units.     

A comprehensive framework for analyzing co-production of urban water and sanitation services in the Global South

ABSTRACT

Co-production of water and sanitation services has become a widely discussed option for equitable and efficient service delivery, especially for cities of the Global South. Theoretical conceptualizations of service co-production mainly refer to the public management and governance dimension, while the techno-environmental and spatial dimensions are often disregarded in the literature. This article proposes a comprehensive framework for analyzing water and sanitation co-production based on cross-cutting literature, from public service management/governance to urban, socio-ecological and socio-technical fields. The proposed framework highlights the categories and factors to be considered when analyzing the background conditions and outcomes of unorthodox service delivery.     

Statistical Domestic Water Demand Model for the West Bank

Abstract

The water balance in the West Bank shows a severe deficit. Scenarios and strategies are formulated in order to overcome the deficit problem. These include options for better management of the existing water resources and the enhancement of new resources. This paper focuses on demand modeling as one of the key issues for effective water management. Although past literature about demand modeling is comparatively rich for different regions in the world, this research provides a unique study, due to the past political situation in the Middle East, for water demand modeling in the West Bank. The developed statistical domestic water demand model will assess the factors which influence domestic water use, and determine the parameters that may help in demand management. Rammallah City is used as a case study to illustrate the proposed framework of the analysis. The developed model indicates that water utility authorities can use price as a tool to ration water or encourage reduced water consumption in households.     

城市水管理与海绵城市建设之理论基础—城市水文学研究进展

过去数十年来,我国经济社会快速发展,城市化进程不断加快,但由于不合理的城市规划和建设,自然水循环系统受到无序的干扰和破坏,引发了一系列城市水问题,城市水管理工作面临巨大挑战。城市水管理的理论支撑就是以研究城市水循环为核心的城市水文科学,"海绵城市"建设作为我国现代城市水管理的重大战略,必须以城市水文学理论为依据,深入研究城市水循环机理和规律。本文围绕城市水管理支撑理论,系统梳理了国内外在城市化水文效应、城市产汇流理论、城市雨洪模拟与管理方面的研究进展,指出城市水文观测与预报、城市化水文效应与产汇流理论、城市综合水系统模型研究是当前和未来一段时间研究的重点和难点。提出了我国当前城市水管理和海绵城市建设所面临的城市产汇流基础理论、城市气象水文监测和水文过程模拟技术问题,以及城市水文学研究应对变化环境下城市复杂的综合水问题开展基于多学科理论的全面精细化模拟分析的基本思路。