Study of wavelength-shifting chemicals for use in large-scale water Cherenkov detectors

Cherenkov detectors employ various methods to maximize light collection at the photomultiplier tubes (PMTs). These generally involve the use of highly reflective materials lining the interior of the detector, reflective materials around the PMTs, or wavelength-shifting sheets around the PMTs. Recently, the use of water-soluble wavelength-shifters has been explored to increase the measurable light yield of Cherenkov radiation in water. These wave-shifting chemicals are capable of absorbing light in the ultraviolet and re-emitting the light in a range detectable by PMTs. Using a 250 L water Cherenkov detector, we have characterized the increase in light yield from three compounds in water: 4-Methylumbelliferone, Carbostyril-124, and Amino-G Salt. We report the gain in PMT response at a concentration of 1 ppm as 1.88±0.02 for 4-Methylumbelliferone, stable within 0.5% over 50 days, 1.37±0.03 for Carbostyril-124, and 1.20±0.02 for Amino-G Salt. The response of 4-Methylumbelliferone was modeled, resulting in a simulated gain within 9% of the experimental gain at 1 ppm concentration. Finally, we report an increase in neutron detection performance of a large-scale (3.5 kL) gadolinium-doped water Cherenkov detector at a 4-Methylumbelliferone concentration of 1 ppm.     

Radiative ion-ion neutralization: a new gas-phase atmospheric pressure ion transduction mechanism

All atmospheric pressure ion detectors, including photo ionization detectors, flame ionization detectors, electron capture detectors, and ion mobility spectrometers, utilize Faraday plate designs in which ionic charge is collected and amplified. The sensitivity of these Faraday plate ion detectors are limited by thermal (Johnson) noise in the associated electronics. Thus approximately 10(6) ions per second are required for a minimal detection. This is not the case for ion detection under vacuum conditions where secondary electron multipliers (SEMs) can be used. SEMs produce a cascade of approximately 10(6) electrons per ion impinging on the conversion dynode. Similarly, photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) can generate approximately 10(6) electrons per photon. Unlike SEMs, however, PMTs are evacuated and sealed so that they are commonly used under atmospheric pressure conditions. This paper describes an atmospheric pressure ion detector based on coupling a PMT with light emitted from ion-ion neutralization reactions. The normal Faraday plate collector electrode was replaced with an electrode "needle" used to concentrate the anions as they were drawn to the tip of the needle by a strong focusing electric field. Light was emitted near the surface of the electrode when analyte ions were neutralized with cations produced from the anode. Although radiative-ion-ion recombination has been previously reported, this is the first time ions from separate ionization sources have been combined to produce light. The light from this radiative-ion-ion-neutralization (RIIN) was detected using a photon multiplier such that an ion mobility spectrum was obtained by monitoring the light emitted from mobility separated ions. An IMS spectrum of nitroglycerin (NG) was obtained utilizing RIIN for tranducing the mobility separated ions into an analytical signal. The implications of this novel ion transduction method are the potential for counting ions at atmospheric pressure and for obtaining ion specific emission spectra for mobility separated ions.     

Trigger electronics of the new Fluorescence Detectors of the Telescope Array Experiment

The Telescope Array Project is an experiment designed to observe Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays via a “hybrid” detection technique utilizing both fluorescence light detectors (FDs) and scintillator surface particle detectors (SDs). We have installed three FD stations and 507 SDs in the Utah desert, and initiated observations from March 2008. The northern FD station reuses 14 telescopes from the High Resolution Fly's Eye, HiRes-I station. Each of the two southern FD stations contains 12 new telescopes utilizing new FADC electronics. Each telescope is instrumented with a camera composed of 256 PMTs. Since the detectors are composed of many PMTs and each PMT detects fluorescence photons together with the vast amount of night sky background, a sophisticated triggering system is required. In this paper, we describe the trigger electronics of these new FD stations. We also discuss performance of the FDs with this triggering system, in terms of efficiencies and apertures for various detector configurations.     

Large-scale gadolinium-doped water Cherenkov detector for nonproliferation

Fission events from Special Nuclear Material (SNM), such as highly enriched uranium or plutonium, can produce simultaneous emission of multiple neutrons and high-energy gamma-rays. The observation of time correlations between any of these particles is a significant indicator of the presence of fissionable material. Cosmogenic processes can also mimic these types of correlated signals. However, if the background is sufficiently low and fully characterized, significant changes in the correlated event rate in the presence of a target of interest constitutes a robust signature of the presence of SNM. Since fission emissions are isotropic, adequate sensitivity to these multiplicities requires a high efficiency detector with a large solid angle with respect to the target. Water Cherenkov detectors are a cost-effective choice when large solid angle coverage is required. In order to characterize the neutron detection performance of large-scale water Cherenkov detectors, we have designed and built a 3.5 kL water Cherenkov-based gamma-ray and neutron detector, and modeled the detector response in Geant4 [1]. We report the position-dependent neutron detection efficiency and energy response of the detector, as well as the basic characteristics of the simulation.     

Long term biological developments in water Cherenkov detector media

Fourteen years ago, studies on bacteria growing in clean water were made in order to assess the hazard imposed by a possible expansion of bacteria population in the water tanks of the Pierre Auger Observatory Cherenkov detectors. In 1999 TANGO Array, a reduced-size unitary cell, composed of four water Cherenkov detectors, was constructed at the TANDAR campus of the Atomic Energy Commission, in Buenos Aires, to be used as a working model of the proposed surface array. TANGO Array ran for one year observing energy, intensity, and arrival directions of cosmic rays at sea level. Nine years after it was decommissioned, the water tanks configuring the Cherenkov detectors are still kept closed. In May 2009 water and liner samples from these tanks were collected to determine eventual long term bacteria growth in the internal detector environment, which is very similar to those of the detectors installed in the Malargüe Site.In the present note we report the results of the bacteriological study performed on the samples obtained from the TANGO Array detector tanks. Cultivable, long time surviving, bacterial species were identified, both in the water mass and on the liner surface, and the light transmission in water at the relevant Cherenkov wavelength was studied. An upper limit of possible interferences caused by bacteria is estimated.     

A light pulser system for testing photomultiplier-based counter systems

A light pulser system is described which is intended for the testing of large particle detection systems which use photomultipliers. Scintillation and Cherenkov counter light pulses can be simulated, through adjustment of pulse amplitude and time constants. Individual light pulses can be turned on or off, thus allowing the detailed simulation of complex configuration to allow the testing of not only the detectors but also of any logic system using their outputs. Relative time stabilities of 170 ps (standard deviation) were achieved in a large system, while observed times using real particles were within ± 2 ns (1 ns standard deviation) of those predicted using the LED system.     

Light scattering and absorption caused by bacterial activity in water

There is a growing class of elementary particle detectors, large-water ?erenkov detectors, that have a body of water (thousands of tons) as a sensitive medium. Particles are detected when they interact with the water and produce ?erenkov light, so detection efficiency relies on the transparency of the water. These detectors are active typically for many years, so biological activity (primarily bacterial growth) is one of the means by which the transparency of the water may be reduced. We present the results of a measurement of light scattering and absorption from a population of Escherichia coli in water, which is used as a model for bacteria in general. One can separate the scattering and absorption by varying the refractive index of the medium by using a solute of high molecular weight. We show that the results can be understood simply in terms of light scattering from small spheres (radius ≈ wavelength) with an effective refractive index, n(b), plus a small amount of absorption in the ultraviolet. We compare his scattering with Rayleigh scattering in pure water.     

Time calibration of the NEutrino Mediterranean Observatory (NEMO)

Large volume Cherenkov detectors are under construction or have been proposed for detection of astrophysical neutrinos under water or ice. In all such cases, the neutrinos are inferred from the detection of the Cherenkov light emitted by the charged leptons created in neutrino interactions inside or around the apparatus. The event reconstruction is thus based on charge and time measurements performed by a system of widely spaced optical sensors. The time calibration is a very delicate operation for such experiments, as it may directly affect the reconstruction efficiency and pointing capabilities of the apparatus. In this paper, we illustrate the systems under study for the km³-scale project NEMO (NEutrino Mediterranean Observatory), focusing on the implementations for the NEMO Phase-1 and Phase-2 prototyping campaigns.     

Evaluation of 400 low background 10-in. photo-multiplier tubes for the Double Chooz experiment

The Double Chooz is a reactor neutrino experiment which measures the last unknown neutrino mixing angle θ₁₃. The Double Chooz experiment uses two identical detectors placed at sites far and near from Chooz reactor cores. The detector uses 390 low-background and high performance 10-in. Photo-Multiplier Tubes (PMTs) to detect scintillation light from gadolinium loaded liquid scintillator. In order to test and characterize the PMTs and to tune operation parameter, we developed two types of PMT test system and evaluated 400 PMTs before installation. Those PMTs fulfilled our requirements and half of them were installed in the far detector in 2009 and physics data have been successfully taken since 2011.     

Propagation of Cherenkov radiation of cosmic ray particles through water

The spatial distribution of Cherenkov radiation emitted by a relativistic muon passing through the water is calculated by the Monte Carlo method. The absorption and scattering of photons in the medium are taken into account. Analytical expressions are obtained for asymptotically large distances from the particle trajectory to the detector.     

衍射微透镜在红外单元探测器中的应用

研究了衍射微透镜提高红外探测器探测能力的方法,通过实验将衍射微透镜耦合到红外单元探测器上,使语组合件的响应度提高到３．２倍、比探测率提高到４．２倍。结果表明：采用微透镜作光聚能器后,探测器光敏面面积可减少而光能利用率增加,探测性能提高。衍射微秀镜的结构小,有利于与探测器集成,其研究极具实用价值。     

A fast detector for single-shot positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy

When an intense sub-nanosecond positron pulse impinges upon a target, a pulse of γ-rays is created which can yield information concerning electron–positron pairs just prior to annihilation. Many conventional γ-ray detectors are unable to exploit the timing information contained within such pulses, and we describe here the development of a fast detector that is able to do so. Using a single-crystal PbF₂ Cherenkov radiator coupled to a fast photomultiplier tube (PMT), we have produced a detector with a time response of 4 ns (primarily determined by the PMT response), as well as a low-efficiency detector with a sub-nanosecond response. Since 511 keV photons produce very little Cherenkov light, the problem of photomultiplier saturation is mitigated and this detector is therefore well suited to single-shot positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (SSPALS) measurements.     

CsI(Tl)-241Am calibration source for Pb-glass detectors

A light pulser for calibrating Pb-glass detectors has been designed consisting of a 3 mm diameter by 1 mm thick CsI(Tl) scintillation crystal positioned in an Al cup 1 mm from an ²⁴¹Am α-emitting source. Optical coupling to a Pb-glass detector is provided by a glass window and epoxy. Calibration consists of exposing the Pb-glass detector to high-energy electrons, typically 2 GeV, and comparing the Cherenkov pulse with the line from the CsI(Tl)-²⁴¹Am source. The advantages of this source are its expected long-term stability of light output, simplicity, and low cost.     

A cherenkov imaging technique for the detection of high energy gamma-rays

Results on the detection of high energy gamma-rays with a gas Cherenkov imaging technique are reported. The experiment conducted with a 480 MeV gamma-ray beam used a position sensitive needle array as the focal detector. Although the average number of UV photons recorded per image is quite low in this experiment ( 1.2 on average), positive results are obtained concerning unambiguous signatures of Cherenkov emission. An angular resolution of 1.4° for 480 MeV gamma-rays is also estimated.     

Large area microchannel plate detector with amorphous silicon pixel array readout for fast neutron radiography

Fast neutron radiography is a non-destructive testing technique with a variety of industrial applications and the capability for element sensitive imaging for contraband and explosives detection.

Commonly used position sensitive detectors for fast neutron radiography are based on charge coupled devices (CCDs) and scintillators. The limited format of CCDs implies that complex optical systems involving lenses and mirrors are required to indirectly image areas that are larger than 8.6 cm×11.05 cm. The use of optics reduces the light collection efficiency of the imaging system, while the efficiency of hydrogen rich scintillators exploiting the proton recoil reaction is limited by the hydrogen concentration and the magnitude of the neutron scattering cross-section.

The light conversion step inevitably involves a tradeoff in scintillator thickness between light yield and spatial resolution.

The development of large area amorphous silicon (a-Si) panel flat panel photodiode arrays and direct neutron-to-charge converters based on microchannel plates, provide an attractive new form of high resolution, large area, fast neutron imaging detector for the non-destructive imaging of large structures. This paper describes some recent results of both Monte Carlo simulations and measurements for such a detector.     

Micromegas in a bulk

In this paper, we present a novel way to manufacture the bulk Micromegas detector. A simple process based on the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) technology is employed to produce the entire sensitive detector. Such a fabrication process could be extended to very large area detectors made by the industry. The low cost fabrication together with the robustness of the electrode materials will make it attractive for several applications ranging from particle physics and astrophysics to medicine.     

Development of a liquid-xenon photon detector--towards the search for a muon rare decay mode at Paul Scherrer Institute

We are developing a new type of photon detector in preparation of an experiment to search for muons decaying into positrons and gamma rays. In the experiment, the photon detector will utilize liquid xenon (Xe) as the scintillation material because of its fast response, large light yield, and high density. The scintillation light emitted in liquid Xe will be observed directly by positioning photomultipliers (PMTs) in the liquid without using a transmission window. In order to determine proper experimental procedures and to study the detector response to gamma rays, we constructed a prototype utilizing a 100 l volume of liquid Xe. The current status and future prospects of detector development are reported in this article.     

Production of 400 mirrors with high VUV reflectivity for use in the SLD Cherenkov ring imaging detector

The Stanford Large Detector for experimental particle physics detection at the SLAC Linear Collider contains a Cherenkov ring imaging detector (CRID). The barrel CRID mirrors have been successfully produced and installed. The industrial mirror production process, the quality control of the mirrors produced, and the results of the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) reflectivity and mirror-shape accuracy are described. An average reflectivity of at least 80% for light at 160 nm and 85% for light in the 180–230 nm wavelength range has been achieved in the production of over 400 mirrors of a typical size of 30 by 30 cm. The surface roughness and optical distortion measurements imply that the light loss due to scattering is a few percent of the incident light and the angular error due to shape distortion is less than 1 mrad.     

The track imaging Cherenkov experiment

We describe a dedicated cosmic-ray telescope that explores a new method for detecting Cherenkov radiation from high-energy primary cosmic rays and the large particle air shower they induce upon entering the atmosphere. Using a camera comprising 16 multi-anode photomultiplier tubes for a total of 256 pixels, the Track Imaging Cherenkov Experiment (TrICE) resolves substructures in particle air showers with 0.086° resolution. Cherenkov radiation is imaged using a novel two-part optical system in which a Fresnel lens provides a wide-field optical trigger and a mirror system collects delayed light with four times the magnification. TrICE records well-resolved cosmic-ray air showers at rates ranging between 0.01 Hz and 0.1 Hz.     

Design of kilogram mass scale TES for the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search

Recently there has been much interest in the direct detection of the dark matter candidates known as WIMPs. We are developing very sensitive detectors based on phonon detection with transition edge sensors on silicon substrates. These detectors will be deploy ed as part of the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search in collaboration with the Center for Particle Astrophysics. As we extend this technology to practical WIMP searches we will need much higher mass scale detectors. We have demonstrated detectors on 500 µm substrates. To reach the kilogram mass scales we need to pattern wafers that are an order of magnitude thicker with a detector that is at least two orders of magnitude more sensitive. Progress is reported on both these areas and a detector design is discussed.