An integrated computer-aided system for generation and evaluation of sustainable process alternatives

This paper presents an integrated system for generation of sustainable process alternatives with respect to new process design as well as retrofit design. The generated process alternatives are evaluated through sustainability metrics, environmental impact factors as well as inherent safety factors. The process alternatives for new process design as well as retrofit design are generated through a systematic method that is simple yet effective and is based on a recently developed path flow analysis approach. According to this approach, a set of indicators are calculated in order to pinpoint unnecessary energy and material waste costs and to identify potential design (retrofit) targets that may improve the process design (in terms of operation and cost) simultaneously with the sustainability metrics, environmental impact factors and the inherent safety factors. Only steady state design data and a database with properties of compounds, including, environmental impact factor related data and safety factor related data are needed. The integrated computer-aided system generates the necessary data if actual plant or experimental data are not available. The application of the integrated system is highlighted through a number of examples including the well-known HDA process.     

Evaluating the economics and environmental friendliness of conceptual designs for new and retrofitted chemical processes

This work describes a method for using spreadsheet analyses of process designs and retrofits to provide simple and quick economic and environmental evaluations simultaneously. The method focuses attention onto those streams and components that have the largest monetary values and potential environmental impacts. Through example processes, including the hydrodealkylation of toluene and the pyrolysis of dichloroethane, results show that alternative processes are easy to evaluate. The method reveals its power from the simple and quick results that are obtained. Thus, the method allows one to focus on more than just economics and meeting environmental regulations and to free time for considering aspects of pollution prevention. Electronic Publication     

Valve fugitive emission measurement standards

During the early 1990s emissions from valves were estimated to be responsible for 60–70% of plant fugitive emissions. The implementation of legislation in the US governing emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), together with EU directives, has provided a stimulus for work aimed at reducing fugitive emissions. This has led to extensive work by plant operators and their suppliers to reduce emissions. An agreed procedure for the measurement of emissions, the qualification of valves and subsequent production testing has yet to be finalized. In this feature Dr David Harrison, the UK Principal Expert on the ISO 15848 Valve Fugitive Emissions Working Group (ISO TC 153/SC1/WG10), discusses the ISO standard, and also some of the alternatives in current industrial use.     

Multi-objective optimization of process cogeneration systems with economic, environmental, and social tradeoffs

Process cogeneration is an effective strategy for exploiting the positive aspects of combined heat and power in the process industry. Traditionally, decisions for process cogeneration have been based mostly on economic criteria. With the growing interest in sustainability issues, there is need to consider economic, environmental, and social aspects of cogeneration. The objective of this article is to develop an optimization framework for the design of process cogeneration systems with economic, environmental, and social aspects. Process integration is used as the coordinating framework for the optimization formulation. First, heat integration is carried out to identify the heating utility requirements. Then, a multi-header steam system is designed and optimized for inlet steam characteristics and their impact on power, fixed and operating costs, greenhouse gas emissions, and jobs. A genetic algorithm is developed to solve the optimization problem. Multi-objective tradeoffs between the economic, environmental, and social aspects are studied through Pareto tradeoffs. A case study is solved to illustrate the applicability of the proposed procedure.     

Incorporation of process integration into life cycle analysis for the production of biofuels

This article presents a new approach for incorporating process-integration tools into life cycle analysis (LCA) for biofuel production. Process synthesis techniques using mass- and energy-integration tools are employed to generate various scenarios for reducing mass and energy consumption in the process. The global implications of these changes and the associated trade-offs are assessed using the LCA tool: GREET. The developed approach enables the consideration of several levels of process integration while tracking the process economics and the reduction of the net greenhouse gas emissions. Several cases of biofuels with different processing technologies have been considered in this study, and the results show that when the process-integration tools are effectively utilized and combined with LCA, better insights are obtained and the net greenhouse gas emissions decrease drastically for different biofuels.     

Analysis of bioenergy production at different levels of integration in energy-driven biorefineries

In this paper, a techno-economic and environmental assessment is performed to compare the stand-alone process and biorefinery ways to produce biodiesel, ethanol and butanol as potential cases for bioenergy production using fresh fruit bunches as raw material. Different levels of integration are considered (e.g., mass and energy integration, non-conventional technologies) along with the analysis of the process scale to determine the economic profitability and environmental impacts of the proposed cases. The results demonstrated that the biodiesel production based on the biorefinery concept has a positive effect on the profitability of the stand-alone process at different scales. The economic results were compared with data reported in the literature. Furthermore, the life cycle analysis of the proposed cases suggested that the deployment of the biorefinery concept at different levels of integration in the oil palm supply chain reduced the environmental impact of the biodiesel production, which was selected as the hotspot of the evaluated cases.     

Mapping function to failure mode during component development

When designing aerospace systems, it is essential to provide crucial failure information for failure prevention. Failure modes and effects types of analyses and prior engineering knowledge and experience are commonly used to determine the potential modes of failures a product might encounter during its lifetime. When new products are being considered and designed, this knowledge and information is expanded upon to help designers extrapolate based on their similarity with existing products and the potential design tradeoffs. In this work, we aim to enhance this process by providing design-aid tools which derive similarities between functionality and failure modes. Specifically, this paper presents the theoretical foundations of a matrix-based approach to derive similarities that exist between different failure modes, by mapping observed failure modes to the functionality of each component, and applies it to a simple design example. The function–failure mode method is proposed to design new products or redesign existing ones with solutions for functions that eliminate or reduce the potential of a failure mode. Electronic Publication     

Aerobic in-vessel composting versus bioreactor landfilling using life cycle inventory models

Potential environmental impacts associated with aerobic in-vessel composting and bioreactor landfilling were assessed using life cycle inventory (LCI) tool. LCI models for solid waste management (SWM) were also developed and used to compare environmental burdens of alternative SWM scenarios. Results from the LCI models showed that the estimated energy recovery from bioreactor landfilling was about 9.6 megajoules (MJ) per kilogram (kg) of waste. Air emissions from in-vessel composting contributed to a global warming potential (GWP) of 0.86 kg of CO₂-equivalent per kg of waste, compared to 1.54 kg of CO₂-equivalent from bioreactor landfill. Waterborne emissions contributing to aquatic toxicity is less coming from in-vessel composting than from bioreactor landfilling. However, emissions to air and water that contribute to human toxicity are greater for the composting option than for the landfill option. Full costs for in-vessel composting is about 6 times greater than for the landfilling alternative. Integration of individually collected commingled recyclables, yard wastes, and residual wastes with windrow composting and bioreactor landfilling produces airborne and waterborne emissions with the least environmental effects among the alternatives considered. It also yields greater energy savings due to the conversion of the landfill gas (LFG) to electrical energy than the option that diverts yard waste, food waste and soiled paper for aerobic in-vessel composting. However, this scenario costs 68% more than that where the commingled collection of wastes is integrated with in-vessel composting and conventional landfilling, owing to increased collection costs.     

Choice experiments in environmental impact assessment: the case of the Toro 3 hydroelectric project and the Recreo Verde tourist center in Costa Rica

Choice experiments, a stated preference valuation method, are proposed as a tool to assign monetary values to environmental externalities during the ex ante stages of environmental impact assessment. This case study looks at the impacts of the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity's Toro 3 hydroelectric project and its impacts on the Recreo Verde tourism center in San Carlos, Costa Rica. Compared to other valuation methods (e.g., travel cost and contingent valuation), choice experiments can create hypothetical but realistic scenarios for consumers and generate restoration alternatives for the affected good. Although they have limitations that must be taken into account in environmental impact assessment, incorporating economic parameters (especially resource constraints and tradeoffs) can substantially enrich the assessment process.     

Systematic approach for conceptual design of an integrated biorefinery with uncertainties

The objective of this work is to present a systematic approach for conceptual design of an integrated biorefinery with maximum economic potential accounting for the predefined uncertainties in energy economics. Various parameters commencing from raw biomass feedstock, desired end products, to market price trend, technological constraints and system uncertainties at multi-periods are to be considered. A structural framework, integrated biorefinery pathway map which embeds and interconnects the latest processing technologies is first developed. Then, a robust optimisation model is adopted to determine the optimum network which handles the predefined sets of uncertainties in energy economics. To illustrate the proposed approach, a case study with two different scenarios of uncertainties is solved. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis is also performed to identify the critical parameters of an integrated biorefinery.     

An approach to potential environmental impact reduction in chemical reaction processes

An approach to identify environmental impact reduction alternatives is presented for chemical reaction processes. The primary tools used in this approach are potential environmental impact (PEI) reaction scheme and PEI change due to reaction. A PEI reaction scheme can be used to visualize the transformation relationships among different types of PEI, and can be applied to aid in identifying the sources of environmental impacts and generating alternatives for reducing the impacts. PEI change due to reaction can be used to indicate the change in PEI when this reaction proceeds by one mole of reaction. With the aid of the PEI reaction scheme and the PEI change due to reaction as well as some heuristics, the chemicals and reactions responsible for the potential impacts in the various impact categories can be identified and environmental impact reduction alternatives for a reaction process can be derived. The environmental performance of each alternative is evaluated by doing a quantitative PEI balance. In the case study, the alternatives, which can reduce the output of PEI and the magnitudes of the fresh feeds as well as increase the selectivity of the product, are obtained by using the approach.     

A model for the evaluation of environmental impact indicators for a sustainable maritime transportation systems

Maritime shipping is considered the most efficient, low-cost means for transporting large quantities of freight over significant distances. However, this process also causes negative environmental and societal impacts. Therefore, environmental sustainability is a pressing issue for maritime shipping management, given the interest in addressing important issues that affect the safety, security, and air and water quality as part of the efficient movement of freight throughout the coasts and waterways and associated port facilities worldwide. In-depth studies of maritime transportation systems (MTS) can be used to identify key environmental impact indicators within the transportation system. This paper develops a tool for decision making in complex environments; this tool will quantify and rank preferred environmental impact indicators within a MTS. Such a model will help decision-makers to achieve the goals of improved environmental sustainability. The model will also provide environmental policy-makers in the shipping industry with an analytical tool that can evaluate tradeoffs within the system and identify possible alternatives to mitigate detrimental effects on the environment.     

Technology assessment for clean energy technologies: The case of the Pacific Northwest

This study presents a technology assessment for clean power generation in the Pacific Northwest. Our goal is to incorporate clean production principles into the evaluation process for power alternatives. Two types of technologies are considered: one is for a renewable energy source (wind) and the other is for a traditional, fossil fuel based energy source (coal). The Analytical Hierarchy Process is used to assess the feasibility of both the wind energy and clean burning coal energy technologies. Criteria such as location, cost, feasibility, and availability are used for evaluations. For the wind energy, cost was determined to be the most important criterion when making a technology decision. For the SO₂ emissions technology, the regenerative process was determined to be the best technology to scrub SO₂ emissions from the air. Additionally, efforts towards renewable energy in Oregon should continue. Both federal and state governments offer tax credits that can help mitigate costs and facilitate the adoption of renewable energy options for power companies.     

Environmental-impact reduction through simultaneous design, scheduling, and operation

Processing facilities are normally designed with sufficient flexibility to handle nominal variations. When the process features planned changes in feedstock and products, scheduling is often used to optimize process operation. Proper scheduling may be limited to existing design or may entail retrofitting. Traditionally, economic objectives have served as the primary drivers for the design, retrofitting, and scheduling of industrial processes. Once a base design and scheduling plan have been established, environmental issues are addressed in many cases as an afterthought. As a result of this sequential approach, valuable synergisms and tradeoffs of economic and environmental objectives are often missed. The objective of this study is to develop a new approach to design and scheduling with economic and environmental objectives. Specifically, this study introduces a systematic framework and the associated mathematical formulation for simultaneous process design and scheduling while simultaneously addressing economic and environmental objectives. Therefore, this study establishes two types of proper tradeoffs (a) between design and scheduling and (b) between economic and environmental objectives. The environmental issues pertaining to the parameterized process retrofitting, scheduling, and operation strategies are simultaneously considered along with the environmental impact of these changes. An optimization formulation is developed for the case of project schedule while allowing design retrofitting changes that include new environmental units and modification of design and operating conditions in the process (without new process units). Also, a process model with the appropriate level of relevant details is included in the formulation. The projected schedule is discretized to allow for a multiperiod formulation with algebraic equations. The resulting framework identifies opportunities for synergism between the economic and environmental objectives. It also determines points of diminishing return beyond which tradeoffs between economic and environmental objectives are established. The devised procedure is illustrated with a case study on an oil refinery with scheduling of different products and the design of an environmental system that addresses NO _x emission.     

Approaches to the modelling of energy utilisation in product life cycles

The paper considers research carried out on the topic of life cycle (LC) modelling of industrial processes with emphasis upon energy utilisation and gaseous emissions. The aim of the work is to investigate existing LC assessment codes, in particular for their outputs and decision making potential, and to develop the characteristics of new software as appropriate. The paper focuses on a comparison of two methods for LC modelling: use of “SimaPro 5” with ECO-indicators and logical-information modelling. The considered approaches require attention to dynamic modelling having features for decision making; for example, in areas of costs, sensitivity analysis and optimisation of LC process parameters to economically reduce the total environmental load. Brick making is chosen as an energy intensive process for model application.     

A systems perspective on responses to climate change

The science of climate change integrates many scientific fields to explain and predict the complex effects of greenhouse gas concentrations on the planet’s energy balance, weather patterns, and ecosystems as well as economic and social systems. A changing climate requires responses to curtail climate forcing as well as to adapt to impending changes. Responses can be categorized into mitigation and adaptation—the former involving efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and the latter involving strategies to adapt to predicted changes. These responses must be of significant scale and extent to be effective, but significant tradeoffs and unintended effects must be avoided. Concepts and science based on systems theory are needed to reduce the risk of unintended consequences from potential responses to climate change. We propose expanding on a conventional risk-based approach to include additional ways of analyzing risks and benefits, such as considering potential cascading ecological effects, full life cycle environmental impacts, and unintended consequences, as well as considering possible co-benefits of responses. Selected responses to climate change are assessed with this expanded set of criteria, and we find that mitigation measures that involve reducing emissions of greenhouse gases that provide corollary benefits are likely to have less negative indirect impacts than large-scale solar radiation management approaches. However, because effects of climate change are unavoidable in the near and medium-term, adaptation strategies that will make societies more resilient in the face of impending change are essential to sustainability.     

Multi-objective teaching–learning-based optimization algorithm for reducing carbon emissions and operation time in turning operations

In addition to energy consumption, the use of cutting fluids, deposition of worn tools and certain other manufacturing activities can have environmental impacts. All these activities cause carbon emission directly or indirectly; therefore, carbon emission can be used as an environmental criterion for machining systems. In this article, a direct method is proposed to quantify the carbon emissions in turning operations. To determine the coefficients in the quantitative method, real experimental data were obtained and analysed in MATLAB. Moreover, a multi-objective teaching–learning-based optimization algorithm is proposed, and two objectives to minimize carbon emissions and operation time are considered simultaneously. Cutting parameters were optimized by the proposed algorithm. Finally, the analytic hierarchy process was used to determine the optimal solution, which was found to be more environmentally friendly than the cutting parameters determined by the design of experiments method.     

Biosolids management with net-zero CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> emissions: a techno-ecological synergy design

Management of biosolids from industrial and municipal wastewater facilities presents multifaceted issues ranging from greenhouse gas emissions, high odor and high treatment costs. Until now, most studies that have focused on identifying the best treatment pathway are based on optimization of technological alternatives and life cycle analysis studies. Such studies aim toward sustainability but ignore the capacity of local ecological systems to provide ecosystem services, thus leading to design solutions that may be sub-optimal due to shifting of impacts outside the boundary, resulting in degradation. This work uses a techno-ecological synergy design methodology to identify optimal strategies for biosolids treatment and disposal, by balancing the supply and demand for carbon sequestration ecosystem service. Both the technological systems that create the ecosystem service demand and ecological systems that supply those services are included within one design framework. Technological alternatives for biosolids management in Central Ohio considered in this work are land filling, land application, incineration and composting. Approaches for supplying the carbon sequestration capacity include forestation, extension of timber cycles and geological sequestration. An additional case where biomass utilization from extension of timber cycle to produce renewable energy is also explored. Results from this study demonstrate that including carbon sequestration ecosystem service explicitly in the design problem leads to solutions where the ecosystem service demand and supply can be balanced, while also being cost-effective. Thus by including ecological systems in the design boundary, the optimal solution space expands to reveal novel solutions that cannot be found by the conventional techno-centric approach.     

Evaluating Pollution Prevention Progress (P2P)

P2P (Pollution Prevention Progress) is a computer-based tool that supports the comparison of process and product alternatives in terms of environmental impacts. This tool provides screening-level information for use in process design and in product life cycle assessment (LCA). Twenty one impact categories and data for approximately 3,000 chemicals are represented in the default database of the new release, P2P Mark III. These data help identify which emissions may require further, more sophisticated, characterisation in the different impact categories. In this paper, we primarily focus on the persistence-bioaccumulation toxicity (PBT) methodology adopted for the classification of chemicals in the context of (eco-)toxicological impacts. This classification methodology is cross-compared with a characterisation approach that provides a more complete model-based representation of the source-to-effect (or environmental) mechanism, but for fewer chemicals. To ensure that the quantity of the emission, and not just chemical hazard, is taken into account the comparison is based on a case study for the production of BDO (1,4-butanediol). Insights are presented independently for both the chemical processing stage, as well as from a broader life cycle perspective. Software available from:     

Design of biorefinery systems for conversion of corn stover into biofuels using a biorefinery engineering framework

Unlocking the potential and value of lignocellulosic residues is an important step in making biorefineries economically and environmentally promising. This calls for a holistic and systematic approach in designing sustainable industrial systems. In this work, biorefinery systems via biochemical route (acetone–butanol–ethanol or ABE system) and thermochemical route (gasification and mixed alcohols or GMA system) for converting corn stover into biofuels have been designed using a Sustainable Engineering Framework. The framework involves eight main steps: (1) design problem definition, (2) data collection, (3) process synthesis and simulation, (4) process integration, (5) resource recovery from residues, (6) utility system design, (7) economic and environmental modelling and (8) economic value and environmental impact margin analysis for decision making. Consideration of resource recovery from biorefinery waste streams has proven to be the key in making biorefineries self-sustaining and with low environmental impacts. Simultaneous economic and environmental feasibility assessment at the early stage of process design is highly envisaged. The cost of biofuel production in the ABE system has been found to be 49.2 US$/GJ and 69.9 US$/GJ in the GMA system. The greenhouse gas emissions are 46.2 g CO₂-eq/GJ for ABE and 19.0 g CO₂-eq/GJ for GMA, lower than gasoline (85 g CO₂-eq/GJ). The GMA system is not economically compelling though with high environmental benefit, while the ABE system has shown to be both economically and environmentally feasible.