Contemporary militant extremism: A linguistic approach to scale development.

In this article, the authors describe procedures used in the development of a new scale of militant extremist mindset. A 2-step approach consisted of (a) linguistic analysis of the texts produced by known terrorist organizations and selection of statements from these texts that reflect the mindset of those belonging to these organizations and (b) analyses of the structural properties of the scales based on 132 selected statements. Factor analysis of militant extremist statements with participants (N = 452) from Australia, Serbia, and the United States produced 3 dimensions: (a) justification and advocacy of violence (War factor), (b) violence in the name of God (God factor), and (c) blaming Western nations for the problems in the world today (West factor). We also report the distributions of scores for the 3 subscales, mean differences among the 3 national samples, and correlations with a measure of dogmatism (M. Rokeach, 1956). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Segregation and Power Relationships.

Comments on T. Pettigrew's article (see record 1962-02866-001) regarding social psychology and desegregation research. The author of this comment argues that segregation occurs in a power relationship based on the domination and exploitation of a socially powerless group and to believe that any one concept, such as conformity, is the motivating factor is a dangerous oversimplification. The author also believes the Pettigrew should not implicitly assume that desegregation is only a problem of changing white attitudes, and that he confuses the definition of attitude needlessly. The author of the comment also provides parts of a communication sent to him by Martin Luther King. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power, approach, and inhibition.

This article examines how power influences behavior. Elevated power is associated with increased rewards and freedom and thereby activates approach-related tendencies. Reduced power is associated with increased threat, punishment, and social constraint and thereby activates inhibition-related tendencies. The authors derive predictions from recent theorizing about approach and inhibition and review relevant evidence. Specifically, power is associated with (a) positive affect, (b) attention to rewards, (c) automatic information processing, and (d) disinhibited behavior. In contrast, reduced power is associated with (a) negative affect; (b) attention to threat, punishment, others' interests, and those features of the self that are relevant to others' goals; (c) controlled information processing; and (d) inhibited social behavior. The potential moderators and consequences of these power-related behavioral patterns are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychological bases of ideology and prejudice: Testing a dual process model.

The issue of personality and prejudice has been largely investigated in terms of authoritarianism and social dominance orientation. However, these seem more appropriately conceptualized as ideological attitudes than as personality dimensions. The authors describe a causal model linking dual dimensions of personality, social world view, ideological attitudes, and intergroup attitudes. Structural equation modeling with data from American and White Afrikaner students supported the model, suggesting that social conformity and belief in a dangerous world influence authoritarian attitudes, whereas toughmindedness and belief in a competitive jungle world influence social dominance attitudes, and these two ideological attitude dimensions influence intergroup attitudes. The model implies that dual motivational and cognitive processes, which may be activated by different kinds of situational and intergroup dynamics, may underlie 2 distinct dimensions of prejudice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Enemies of freedom: Understanding right-wing authoritarianism.

Reviews the book, Enemies of freedom: Understanding right-wing authoritarianism by Bob Altemeyer (see record 1988-98419-000). This book is the second of a projected three volume series by Altemeyer on the right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) construct. In this volume, Altemeyer (1988) reports the results of further research conducted since the first volume using his RWA scale. Specifically, three issues are dealt with: (1) how RWA develops in the individual, (2) why RWA is organized the way it is, and (3) how RWA can be controlled in a democratic society. Altemeyer's underlying assumption in this and the preceding volume is that a considerable potential for RWA exists in countries like Canada and the United States and that it is therefore a potentially serious problem requiring vigilance and perhaps ultimately preventive measures. Are his fears in this regard justified? It depends on how seriously one takes the respondents' self-reports. Altemeyer repeatedly shows that individuals (usually college students) who score high on the RWA scale are reportedly willing to punish others and to endorse actions that would curtail the civil rights of others, especially those with left-wing political leanings, who threaten the established order. However, in most instances, the measures are attitudinal ones dealing with respondents' reactions to hypothetical incidents and situations as to what they might do or would endorse having others do. Thus, Altemeyer's fears of the high RWA scorers and the seriousness of their threat to North American and other societies depend on knowing how willing they would be to act on their personal inclinations. Be that as it may, from a number of angles Altemeyer's current book on RWA deserves close and thoughtful reading by social, personality, and developmental psychologists. Those interested in political psychology, a relatively new area attracting social and personality psychologists and political scientists, will find it especially valuable and insightful. As noted earlier in the review, both of Altemeyer's RWA volumes should be required reading for would-be constructors of personality and attitude scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual overperception: Power, mating motives, and biases in social judgment.

Results from 4 experiments suggest that power motivates heightened perceptions and expectations of sexual interest from subordinates. Having power over a member of the opposite sex activated sexual concepts that persisted across a temporal delay, indicating the activation of a mating goal (Study 1). Having power increased participants' expectations of sexual interest from a subordinate (Study 2) but only when a mating goal was attainable (i.e., when the subordinate was romantically available; Study 3). In a face-to-face interaction between 2 participants, power heightened perceptions of sexual interest and sexualized behavior among participants with chronically active mating goals (i.e., sexually unrestricted individuals; Study 4). Tests of mediation demonstrated that sexual overperception mediated power's effect on sexually tinged behavior. Through its capacity to induce goal pursuit, power can activate mating goals that sexualize interactions between men and women. This research demonstrates one route through which power might lead to sexual harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Americans respond politically to 9/11: Understanding the impact of the terrorist attacks and their aftermath.

The 9/11 terrorist attacks have had profound effect on U.S. domestic and foreign security policy, leading to several expensive wars and the erosion of civil liberties (under the USA PATRIOT Act). We review evidence on political reactions to the 9/11 attacks and conclude that subjective reactions to terrorism played an important role in shaping support for national security policy in the wake of 9/11. Support for a strong national security policy was most pronounced among Americans who perceived the nation as at threat from terrorism and felt angry at terrorists. In contrast, Americans who were personally affected by the attacks were more likely to feel anxious about terrorism, and this anxiety translated into less support for overseas military action. In addition, Americans who felt insecure after the 9/11 attacks and perceived a high future threat of terrorism were more likely than others to support strong foreign and domestic national security policies. Overall, research on American political reactions to 9/11 suggests that support for a strong government response to terrorism is most likely when members of a population perceive a high risk of future terrorism and feel angry at terrorists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power, Voice, and Hierarchy: Exploring the Antecedents of Speaking Up in Groups.

This study examined the effects of interpersonal power and social dominance orientation on individuals' propensities to voice opinions in a group task. It was proposed that individuals high in power would tend to voice their opinions to a greater extent than individuals with less power and that this effect would increase with higher levels of social dominance orientation, that is, the degree to which individuals believe that social hierarchies are justified. This relationship was tested using moderated multiple regression. Significant results were found for the interactive relationship between power and social dominance orientation on voice. Implications and future directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does Elevated Power Lead to Approach and Reduced Power to Inhibition? Comment on Keltner, Gruenfeld, and Anderson (2003).

D. Keltner, D. H. Gruenfeld, and C. Anderson (see record 2003-00307-004) stated a set of propositions postulating independent effects for elevated power and reduced power. The present commentary argues that past studies have permitted examining the opposite effects but not the specific effects of high and low power. Suggestions are made for improving designs and formulating analytic strategies that would permit evaluating the specific assertions that elevated power increases approach and reduced power increases inhibition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes toward old people: The development of a scale and an examination of correlates.

"The present paper reports on the development of a Likert scale for assessing attitudes toward old people and discusses empirical relations found between such attitudes and other attitudinal and personality variables. Three samples of college undergraduates served as subjects… a scale containing items making unfavorable reference to old people and a scale containing matched favorably worded items [were constructed]… no clear consistent relation obtained between authoritarianism as measured by the F Scale and attitudes toward old people. On the other hand, unfavorable attitudes toward old people were associated with feelings of anomie, and with negative dispositions toward ethnic minorities and a variety of physically disabled groups. A nurturance factor… was significantly correlated with… scale scores, the more nuturant subjects being more positively disposed toward old people." From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3GD44K. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations.

Reviews the book, The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations by Laurie A. Rudman and Peter Glick (see record 2008-09331-000). In this volume, respected gender experts Rudman and Glick (both former recipients of the Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Award for their respective research in this area) highlight the ways in which male dominance and intimate interdependence work together to shape peoples’ attitudes toward men and women and thusly their interactions with members of both sexes. Although its publication in the Texts series suggests that it is aimed primarily at a student audience, this volume nevertheless has much to offer the interested layperson and the serious academic as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power and the objectification of social targets.

Objectification has been defined historically as a process of subjugation whereby people, like objects, are treated as means to an end. The authors hypothesized that objectification is a response to social power that involves approaching useful social targets regardless of the value of their other human qualities. Six studies found that under conditions of power, approach toward a social target was driven more by the target's usefulness, defined in terms of the perceiver's goals, than in low-power and baseline conditions. This instrumental response to power, which was linked to the presence of an active goal, was observed using multiple instantiations of power, different measures of approach, a variety of goals, and several types of instrumental and noninstrumental target attributes. Implications for research on the psychology of power, automatic goal pursuit, and self-objectification theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Flexibility now, consistency later: Psychological distance and construal shape evaluative responding.

Researchers have long been interested in understanding the conditions under which evaluations will be more or less consistent or context-dependent. The current research explores this issue by asking when stability or flexibility in evaluative responding would be most useful. Integrating construal level theory with research suggesting that variability in the mental representation of an attitude object can produce fluctuations in evaluative responding, we propose a functional relationship between distance and evaluative flexibility. Because individuals construe psychologically proximal objects more concretely, evaluations of proximal objects will tend to incorporate unique information from the current social context, promoting context-specific responses. Conversely, because more distal objects are construed more abstractly, evaluations of distal objects will be less context-dependent. Consistent with this reasoning, the results of 4 studies suggest that when individuals mentally construe an attitude object concretely, either because it is psychologically close or because they have been led to adopt a concrete mindset, their evaluations flexibly incorporate the views of an incidental stranger. However, when individuals think about the same issue more abstractly, their evaluations are less susceptible to incidental social influence and instead reflect their previously reported ideological values. These findings suggest that there are ways of thinking that will tend to produce more or less variability in mental representation across contexts, which in turn shapes evaluative consistency. Connections to shared reality, conformity, and attitude function are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A duplex theory of hate: Development and application to terrorism, massacres, and genocide.

This article presents a triangular theory of the structure of hate and a story-based theory of the development of triangles of hate. Hate is proposed to be 1 contributing cause of many, although certainly not all, massacres and genocides. The article describes why the problem of terrorism, massacres, and genocide is of critical importance to psychology; reviews theories of the instigation of massacres and genocides; and then presents the duplex theory. The role of propaganda and other instigating factors is discussed. The benefits and limitations of the proposed duplex theory of hate are reviewed. Possible remedies for hate also are delineated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences and interventions.

Reviews the book, Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences and interventions edited by Fathali M. Moghaddam and Anthony J. Marsella (see record 2003-06477-000). This edited volume effectively meets its goal of assessing the psychosocial origins and effects of international terrorism. Three sections, each containing multiple chapters, address in turn, broad conceptual issues regarding definitions and context of international terrorism, specific psychosocial processes involved in the development and functioning of terrorist groups, and consequences of and responses to, terrorist acts. Two general limitations of the book exist that are probably a reflection of challenges associated with the edited volume format. First, some issues are discussed repeatedly across chapters. Second, some readers may identify limited cases of faulty logic, unnecessarily detailed lists of empirical studies, and an overemphasis on issues uniquely relevant to the United States. Importantly, these concerns are relevant to a small minority of chapters or portions of chapters, and so the book is in large part compelling, intellectual, focused, and decidedly non-ethnocentric. As such, it is recommended reading for anyone concerned with terrorism and war, group relations, politics, aggression, trauma, prejudice, and cross-cultural understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Graphic ratings and attitude measurement: A comparison of research tactics.

This paper suggests that under certain conditions attitudes may be measured as validly and as reliably with a single "attitude report question" as with a multi-item attitude scale. 84 physicans responded to 8 Guttman scales, and also rated their attitudes on 8 comparable graphic rating scales. These data were factor analyzed, and the communalities used as an estimate of the minimal scale reliability. In general, the graphic rating scales proved as reliable as the Guttman scales. An examination of the interscale correlations showed that similar conclusions would be drawn from either technique. It is suggested that a single graphic rating may usefully substitute for a multi-item attitude scale when the attitude continuum is unidimensional. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leader--member exchange, differentiation, and psychological contract fulfillment: A multilevel examination.

Prior integrations of the leader-member exchange (LMX) and psychological contract literatures have not clarified how within-group LMX differentiation influences employees' attitudes and behaviors in the employment relationship. Therefore, using a sample of 278 members and managers of 31 intact work groups at 4 manufacturing plants, the authors examined how LMX operating at the within-group level (relative LMX, or RLMX) and the group level influenced perceptions of psychological contract fulfillment and employee-level outcomes. Controlling for individual-level perceptions of LMX quality, results indicated a positive relationship between RLMX and fulfillment, which was strengthened as group-level variability in LMX quality increased. Perceptions of fulfillment mediated the relationship between RLMX and performance and sportsmanship behaviors. The importance of conceptualizing LMX as simultaneously operating at multiple levels is highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social identities and intergroup bias in immigrant and nonimmigrant children.

Ethnic and American identity, as well as positivity and negativity toward multiple social groups, were assessed in 392 children attending 2nd or 4th grade in various New York City neighborhoods. Children from 5 ethnic groups were recruited, including White and Black Americans, as well as recent immigrants from China, the Dominican Republic, and the former Soviet Union. For ethnic minority children, greater positivity bias (evaluating one's ingroup more positively than outgroups) was predicted by immigrant status and ethnic identity, whereas negativity bias (evaluating outgroups more negatively than one's ingroup) was associated with increased age, immigrant status, and (among 4th graders only) ethnic identity. In addition, a more central American identity was associated with less intergroup bias among ethnic minority children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Relational Perspective on Women and Power.

This article focuses on the fact that women and men have equal but different needs for power. Integrating a psychoanalytic relational approach with feminist theory and social psychology, the author explains gender differences and societal influences on the pursuit of power. Social psychology research indicates that women are more likely to pursue power in ways that help others, whereas men are more likely to pursue their own individual ambitions. However, both genders become more nurturing in their expressions of power as they age. The presence of siblings in early life and having children as adults are more likely to produce an individual who demonstrates prosocial power. Young women today appear to be less conflicted about pursuing power in the world than the previous generation, but they are still ambivalent when it comes to making their way in the world. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation, affect, and hemispheric asymmetry: Power versus affiliation.

In 4 experiments, the authors examined to what extent information related to different social needs (i.e., power vs. affiliation) is associated with hemispheric laterality. Response latencies to a lateralized dot-probe task following lateralized pictures or verbal labels that were associated with positive or negative episodes related to power, affiliation, or achievement revealed clear-cut laterality effects. These effects were a function of need content rather than of valence: Power-related stimuli were associated with right visual field (left hemisphere) superiority, whereas affiliation-related stimuli were associated with left visual field (right hemisphere) superiority. Additional results demonstrated that in contrast to power, affiliation primes were associated with better discrimination between coherent word triads (e.g., goat, pass, and green, all related to mountain) and noncoherent triads, a remote associate task known to activate areas of the right hemisphere. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)