I-V characteristics of a-Si-c-Si hetero-junction diodes made by hot wire CVD

p-Type hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) was deposited on n-type crystalline silicon (c-Si) substrates to obtain hetero-junction diodes. Additionally, a thin intrinsic a-Si:H layer was inserted between both the p-type film and the n-type substrate to study its passivation effect on the c-Si surface. The amorphous films were obtained by the hot wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD) technique, using a tungsten filament and silane (SiH₄), hydrogen (H₂) and diborane (B₂H₆) gases, where the deposition parameters such as gas flow, substrate temperature and filament temperature were varied. Optical band gap, deposition rate and conductivity were measured for all the films. We studied the influence of the quality of the amorphous films upon the performance of the hetero-junction diodes. In particular, the diode ideality factor (n) and the saturation current density (J₀) were determined by measuring the current-voltage characteristics in dark conditions. It is shown that the presence of the intrinsic layer is fundamental for making good diodes, since devices made without this film cause the diodes to have high saturation current density and ideality factor (J₀>10×10⁻⁶ A/cm², n>4) as compared to diodes with a good intrinsic layer (J₀=5×10⁻⁹ A/cm², n=1.39). The results obtained are encouraging, but the quality of the intrinsic films still should be improved for applying them to HIT solar cells.     

Co-deposition of TiO2/CdS films electrode for photo-electrochemical cells

A densely packed TiO₂ thin film onto an indium doped–tin oxide (ITO) substrate was synthesized at room temperature by chemical deposition and a CdS thin film was deposited onto the pre-deposited TiO₂ film by a doctor blade route (powder of CdS was obtained from chemical deposition). TiO₂/CdS film was annealed at 300 °C for 1 h in air for crystallinity improvement. The first grown TiO₂ film was nanocrystalline, whereas the CdS film was polycrystalline as evidenced by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images show formation of mono-dispersed CdS spherical grains onto compact, densely packed spherical nanocrystalline grains of TiO₂. The TiO₂/CdS bilayer film was used in a photo-electrochemical cell as a working electrode, and a platinum electrode as a counter electrode (0.1 M lithium iodide electrolyte) under 80 mW/cm² light illumination intensity.     

Optical and electrical studies on molybdenum sulphoselenide [Mo(S1−xSex)2] thin films prepared by arrested precipitation technique (APT)

Nanocrystalline stoichiometric [Mo(S_1−xSe_x)₂] thin films were deposited by using arrested precipitation technique (APT) developed in our laboratory. The precursors used for this are namely, molybdenum triethanolamine complex, thioacetamide and sodium selenosulphite; and various preparative conditions are finalised at the initial stages of deposition. Formation of [Mo(S_1−xSe_x)₂] semiconducting thin films are confirmed by studying growth mechanism, optical and electrical properties. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the composites are nanocrystalline being mixed ternary chalcogenides of the general formula [Mo(S_1−xSe_x)₂]. The optical studies revealed that the films are highly absorptive (α×10⁴ cm⁻¹) with a band-to-band direct type of transitions and the energy gap decreased typically from 1.86 eV for pure MoS₂ down to 1.42 eV for MoSe₂. The thermoelectrical power measurement shows negative polarity for the generated voltage across the two ends of semiconductor thin films. This indicate that the [Mo(S_1−xSe_x)₂] thin film samples show n-type conduction.     

A photovoltaic cell from p-type boron-doped amorphous carbon film

Boron-doped amorphous carbon (a-C(B)) films were prepared on n-type silicon using pulsed laser deposition technique of a graphite target. The a-C(B) films have been proved to be p-type by the formation of a heterojunction between the a-C(B) film and n-Si. The device of a-C(B)/n-Si structure yielded an open-circuit voltage (V_oc) of 0.27 V and a short-circuit current density (J_sc) of 2.2 mA/cm² under illumination (AM1.5 100 mW/cm²). According to calculation, the energy conversion efficiency and fill factor were found to be about 0.3% and 0.53, respectively.     

Effect of copper diffusion on photovoltaic characteristics of CuGaSe2–GaAs cells

CuGaSe₂–GaAs heterojunctions were fabricated by fast evaporation of polycrystalline CuGaSe₂ from a single source on n-type GaAs substrates. The best CuGaSe₂–GaAs photocell (without an antireflective coating) exhibited an efficiency of 11.5%, J_sc=32 mA/cm², V_oc=610 mV and FF=0.60. The spectral distribution of photosensitivity of CuGaSe₂–GaAs junctions extends from 400 to 900 nm. The CuGaSe₂ films were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques. XRD analysis indicated that the thin films were strongly oriented along the (1 1 2) plane. SEM studies of CuGaSe₂ films showed nearly stoichiometric composition with grain size about 1–2 μm. The energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis of Cu concentration distribution in n-type GaAs showed that Cu diffused from the film into n-type GaAs during the growth process resulting in formation of the latent p–n homojunction in substrate. The diffusion coefficient of Cu in GaAs at growth temperature (520°C) estimated from EDX measurements was 6×10⁻⁸ cm²/s.     

Photoelectrocatalytic activity of spray deposited ZnO thin films against E. coli Davis

Abstract

Zinc oxide (ZnO) thin films have been deposited onto fluorine doped tin oxide coated glass substrates by economical chemical spray pyrolysis technique. Films were deposited using various quantities of solution from 50 to 200 cc (substrate temperature 400°C, solution concentration 0·2M) in order to achieve different thicknesses. The films were characterised by X-ray diffraction, SEM, AFM and optical absorption techniques. The films exhibit a hexagonal wurtzite crystal structure with preferred (002) orientation. Morphological study showed a smooth and nanocrystalline surface of ZnO films. Direct optical band gap energy of ZnO thin films is found to be 3·24 eV. The average transmission is of the order of 87% in the visible region. The photoelectrocatalytic response of the film against Escherichia coli Davis is studied using a specially designed photoelectrochemical (PEC) reactor module. Thickness and UV light dependent photoelectrocatalytic bactericidal properties of ZnO thin films have been investigated. It shows that biased 1·1 μm thick ZnO thin films with 2 mW cm^?2 UV light intensity give better bactericidal response compared to others. The relative percentage of killing of bacteria is 19·81% due to UV illumination, 52·71% due to UV illumination and passing over ZnO surface and 95·03% due to UV illumination and passing through PEC reactor with ZnO thin film after 2·5 h. It can be concluded that the ZnO thin film with photochemical reactor can be used in a water purifier to get bacteria free drinking water.     

High-efficiency μc-Si/c-Si heterojunction solar cells

P-type microcrystalline silicon (μc-Si (p)) on n-type crystalline silicon (c-Si(n)) heterojunction solar cells is investigated. Thin boron-doped μc-Si layers are deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition on CZ-Si and the V_oc of μc-Si/c-Si heterojunction solar cells is higher than that produced by a conventional thermal diffusion process. Under the appropriate conditions, the structure of thin μc-Si films on (1 0 0), (1 1 0), and (1 1 1) CZ-Si is ordered, so high V_oc of 0.579 V is achieved for 2×2 cm² μc-Si/multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si) solar cells. The epitaxial-like growth is important in the fabrication of high-efficiency μc-Si/mc-Si heterojunction solar cells.     

Structure, composition and optical properties of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films deposited by Pulsed Laser Deposition method

Polycrystalline Cu₂ZnSnS₄ (CZTS) thin films have been directly deposited on heating Mo-coated glass substrates by Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) method. The results of energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) indicate that these CZTS thin films are Cu-rich and S-poor. The combination of X-ray diffraction (XRD) results and Raman spectroscopy reveals that these thin films exhibit strong preferential orientation of grains along [1 1 2] direction and small Cu_2−xS phase easily exists in CZTS thin films. The lattice parameters and grain sizes have been examined based on XRD patterns and Atom Force Microscopy (AFM). The band gap (E_g) of CZTS thin films, which are determined by reflection spectroscopy varies from 1.53 to 1.98 eV, depending on substrate temperature (T_sub). The optical absorption coefficient of CZTS thin film (T_sub=450 °C) measured by spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) is above 10⁴ cm⁻¹.     

Electrical conduction studies of hot wall deposited CdSexTe1−x thin films

CdSe_xTe_1−x thin films of different compositions have been deposited on cleaned glass substrates using the hot wall deposition technique under conditions very close to thermodynamical equilibrium with minimum loss of material. The electrical conductivity of the deposited films has been studied as a function of temperature. All the films showed a transition from phonon-assisted hopping conduction through the impurity band to grain-boundary-limited conduction in the conduction/valence band at temperature around 325 K. The conductivity has been found to vary with composition; it varied from 0.0027 to 0.0198 Ω⁻¹ cm⁻¹ when x changed from 0 to 1. The activation energies of the films of different compositions determined at 225 and 400 K have been observed to lie in the range 0.0031–0.0098 and 0.0285–0.0750 eV, respectively. The Hall-effect studies carried out on the deposited films revealed that the nature of conductivity (p or n-type) was dependent on film composition; films with composition x=0 and 0.15 have been found to be p-type and the ones with composition x=0.4, 0.6, 0.7, 0.85 and 1 have been observed to exhibit n-type conductivity. The carrier concentration has been determined and is of the order of 10¹⁷ cm⁻³. The majority of carrier mobilities of the films have been observed to vary from 0.032 to 0.183 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ depending on film composition. The study of the mobility of the charge carriers with temperature in the range of 300–450 K showed that the mobility increased with power of temperature indicating that the type of scattering mechanism in the studied temperature range is the ionized impurity scattering mechanism.     

Pyrite (FeS2) thin films prepared by spray method using FeSO4 and (NH4)2Sx

A simple spray method for the preparation of pyrite (FeS₂) thin films has been studied using FeSO₄ and (NH₄)₂S_x as precursors for Fe and S, respectively. Aqueous solutions of these precursors are sprayed alternately onto a substrate heated up to 120°C. Although Fe–S compounds including pyrite are formed on the substrate by the spraying, sulfurization of deposited films is needed to convert other phases such as FeS or marcasite into pyrite. A single-phase pyrite film is obtained after the sulfurization in a H₂S atmosphere at around 500°C for 30 min. All pyrite films prepared show p-type conduction. They have a carrier concentration (p) in the range 10¹⁶–10²⁰ cm⁻³ and a Hall mobility (μ_H) in the range 200–1 cm²/V s. The best electrical properties (p=7×10¹⁶ cm⁻³, μ_H=210 cm²/V s) for a pyrite film prepared here show the excellence of this method. The use of a lower concentration FeSO₄ solution is found to enhance grain growth of pyrite crystals and also to improve electrical properties of pyrite films.     

High-pressure condition of SiH4+Ar+H2 plasma for deposition of hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon film

The characteristics of 13.56-MHz discharged SiH₄+Ar+H₂ plasma at high pressure (2–8 Torr), used for the deposition of hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si:H) films in a capacitively coupled symmetric PECVD system, has been investigated. Plasma parameters such as average electron density, sheath field and bulk field are extracted from equivalent circuit model of the plasma using outputs (current, voltage and phase) of RF V–I probe under different pressure conditions. The conditions of growth in terms of plasma parameters are correlated with properties of the hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon films characterized by Raman, AFM and dc conductivity. The film deposited at 4 Torr of pressure, where relatively low sheath/bulk field ratio is observed, exhibits high crystallinity and conductivity. The crystalline volume fraction of the films estimated from the Raman spectra is found to vary from 23% to 79%, and the trend of variation is similar to the RF real plasma impedance data.     

Metal silicide-mediated microcrystalline silicon thin-film growth for photovoltaics

Microcrystalline thin Si films were grown by the metal-induced growth method. The metal catalyst (Co, Ni, or Co-coated Ni) first reacted to sputtered Si forming a silicide layer. Then a Si film was epitaxially grown above the silicide seed template. The crystallinity of Si films was investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirming Si film growth with CoSi₂ or NiSi₂ as an intermediate step. The grown Si films were fabricated into Schottky photodiodes. The Co-coated Ni modulated the silicide formation and gave a short-circuit current density (J_sc) of 10.6 mA/cm², which is one order higher than that for the single Co catalyst case.     

Deposition of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) films by hot-wire chemical vapor deposition (HW-CVD) method: Role of substrate temperature

Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) thin films were deposited from pure silane (SiH₄) using hot-wire chemical vapor deposition (HW-CVD) method. We have investigated the effect of substrate temperature on the structural, optical and electrical properties of these films. Deposition rates up to 15 Å s⁻¹ and photosensitivity 10⁶ were achieved for device quality material. Raman spectroscopic analysis showed the increase of Rayleigh scattering in the films with increase in substrate temperature. The full width at half maximum of TO peak (Γ_TO) and deviation in bond angle (Δθ) are found smaller than those obtained for P-CVD deposited a-Si:H films. The hydrogen content in the films was found <1 at% over the range of substrate temperature studied. However, the Tauc's optical band gap remains as high as 1.70 eV or much higher. The presence of microvoids in the films may be responsible for high value of band gap at low hydrogen content. A correlation between electrical and structural properties has been found. Finally, the photoconductivity degradation of optimized a-Si:H film under intense sunlight was also studied.     

Mechanistic investigation on tuning the conductivity type of cuprous oxide (Cu2O) thin films via deposition potential

The conductivity type of cuprous oxide (Cu₂O) thin films is tuned by controlling the deposition potential of an electrochemical process in an acid cupric acetate solution containing sodium dodecyl sulfate. The morphology and chemical composition of the deposited Cu₂O films are studied by SEM, XRD and XPS. The change of the conductivity type of Cu₂O films is further studied through zero-bias photocurrent and Mott-Schottky measurements. The results indicate that the Cu₂O films behave as n-type semiconductors when the overpotentials are low (potentials higher than ?0.05 V) and p-type semiconductors when the overpotentials are high (potentials lower than ?0.10 V). The transformation of conductivity from n-type to p-type comes from the competition reactions between forming Cu₂O and forming metallic Cu from Cu²⁺. When the potential is lower than ?0.10 V, most of Cu²⁺ are consumed by the growth of metallic Cu at the film/solution interface, so that the Cu²⁺ provided to grow Cu₂O film are insufficient and copper vacancies form in the film, leading to the p-type conductivity.     

Photoelectrochemical characterisation of indium nitride and tin nitride in aqueous solution

Indium nitride (InN) and tin nitride (SnN_x) films were produced with reactive d.c. magnetron sputtering technique. The thin film semiconductors were optically and photoelectrochemically characterised and the energetic positions of the two semiconductors’ band edges were determined with respect to the normal hydrogen electrode. The sputtered InN thin film showed an indirect bandgap of 1.4 eV and a direct bandgap of 1.8 eV. The optical spectra of SnN_x indicated a bandgap energy of approximately 1.4 eV. All nitride films showed n-type photoresponse in KI (aq) electrolyte at an irradiation intensity of 1000 W/m². The photoelectrochemical characterisation indicated that InN and SnN_x with a bias of about 400 mV or less can be used for photo-oxidation of water.     

Optical and electrochromic properties of oxygen sputtered tungsten oxide (WO3) thin films

Thin films of tungsten oxide (WO₃) were deposited onto glass, ITO coated glass and silicon substrates by pulsed DC magnetron sputtering (in active arc suppression mode) of tungsten metal with pure oxygen as sputter gas. The films were deposited at various oxygen pressures in the range 1.5×10⁻²−5.2×10⁻² mbar. The influence of oxygen sputters gas pressure on the structural, optical and electrochromic properties of the WO₃ thin films has been investigated. All the films grown at various oxygen pressures were found to be amorphous and near stoichiometric. A high refractive index of 2.1 (at λ=550 nm) was obtained for the film deposited at a sputtering pressure of 5.2×10⁻² mbar and it decreases at lower oxygen sputter pressure. The maximum optical band gap of 3.14 eV was obtained for the film deposited at 3.1×10⁻² mbar, and it decreases with increasing sputter pressure. The decrease in band gap and increase in refractive index for the films deposited at 5.2×10⁻² mbar is attributed to the densification of films due to ‘negative ion effects’ in sputter deposition of highly oxygenated targets. The electrochromic studies were performed by protonic intercalation/de-intercalation in the films using 0.5 M HCl dissolved in distilled water as electrolyte. The films deposited at high oxygen pressure are found to exhibit better electrochromic properties with high optical modulation (75%), high coloration efficiency (CE) (141.0 cm²/C) and less switching time at λ=550 nm; the enhanced electrochromism in these films is attributed to their low film density, smaller particle size and larger thickness. However, the faster color/bleach dynamics is these films is ascribed to the large insertion/removal of protons, as evident from the contact potential measurements (CPD) using Kelvin probe. The work function of the films deposited at 1.5 and 5.2×10⁻² mbar are 4.41 and 4.30 eV, respectively.     

Preparation and properties of thin Pt-Ir films deposited by dc magnetron co-sputtering

A series of Pt-Ir thin films envisaged for application as fuel cell cathodic catalysts are deposited by dc co-sputtering from pure metal targets. To achieve different metal ratios, the sputtering power applied on the iridium target (P_Ir) is varied in the range 0-100 W at constant power of the Pt target (P_Pt). The influence of the sputtering power on the film composition, morphology, and surface structure is analysed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The catalytic activity towards oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is evaluated in sulphuric acid solutions applying the methods of cyclic voltammetry and potentiodynamic polarization curves. The performed morphological and electrochemical investigations reveal that catalytic efficiency of the co-sputtered Pt-Ir films is superior compared to pure Pt. The ORR is most intensive on the sample deposited at power ratio P_Pt:P_Ir = 100:30 W containing 11 at.% Ir that has also the most developed active surface. The ORR current density for this film achieved at 0.825 V in acid solution (4.1 mA cm⁻²) is about 6 times higher than for pure Pt (0.67 mA cm⁻²). The improved activity of the thin co-sputtered Pt-Ir over Pt allows for essential reduction of the catalyst loading at preserved performance.     

Fabrication of vacuum-evaporated SnS/CdS heterojunction for PV applications

SnS/CdS heterojunction is a promising system for the fabrication of thin film solar cells. In our work, thin film SnS/CdS heterojunction was prepared by evaporating CdS and SnS films. The photovoltaic properties of the heterojunction were investigated with posttreatment of the window material treatment by CdCl₂ for grain size enlargement. I–V characteristics in dark and at light were taken and figures of merit were evaluated. The efficiency with and without window layer treatment were about 0.08% and 0.05%, respectively, under 100 mW/cm² intensity. To the best of our knowledge so far there has been no report on vacuum-evaporated SnS-based heterojunction with window material treatment by CdCl₂.     

Electrochemical deposition of porous Co3O4 nanostructured thin film for lithium-ion battery

Porous Co₃O₄ nanostructured thin films are electrodeposited by controlling the concentration of Co(NO₃)₂ aqueous solution on nickel sheets, and then sintered at 300 °C for 3 h. The as-prepared thin films are characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The electrochemical measurements show that the highly porous Co₃O₄ thin film with the highest electrochemically active specific surface area (68.64 m² g⁻¹) yields the best electrochemical performance compared with another, less-porous film and with a non-porous film. The highest specific capacity (513 mAh g⁻¹ after 50 cycles) is obtained from the thinnest film with Co₃O₄ loaded at rate of 0.05 mg cm⁻². The present research demonstrates that electrode morphology is one of the crucial factors that affect the electrochemical properties of electrodes.     

Structural characterization and electrochemical properties of RF-sputtered nanocrystalline Co3O4 thin-film anode

Nanocrystalline Co₃O₄ thin-film anodes were deposited on Pt-coated silicon and 304 stainless steel by radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering. The as-deposited and annealed cobalt oxide thin films showed smooth and crack-free morphologies. Both the as-deposited and annealed films exhibited spinel Co₃O₄ phase with nanocrystalline structure. High-temperature annealing enhanced the crystallinity of RF-sputtered cobalt oxide films due to rearrangement of cobalt and oxygen atoms. Electrochemical characterization of RF-sputtered films was carried out by cyclic voltammetry and charge/discharge tests in the voltage range of 0.3–3.0 V. Cyclic voltammetry plots showed that the RF-sputtered Co₃O₄ thin films were electrochemically active. X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS) showed that the fresh cobalt oxide films had two peaks of Co₃O₄. In addition to the binding energy of cobalt oxide, the XPS spectrum of discharged film presented two additional binding energies correspond to Co metal. The first discharge capacities of as-deposited, 300, 500, and 700 °C-annealed films were 722.8, 772.5, 868.4, and 1059.9 μAh cm⁻² μm⁻¹, respectively. High-temperature annealing could enhance the capacity and cycle retention obviously. After 25 cycles discharging, the annealed films showed better cycle retention than as-deposited film. The 700 °C-annealed film exhibited excellent discharge capacity approximated to the theoretical capacity.