Probabilistic reasoning in the law. Part 2: Assessment of probabilities and explanation of the value of trace evidence other than DNA

The purpose of this study was to investigate the recovery of muscle force generating capacity (FGC) of the lower limbs following a session of cycle exercise (CE). Fourteen male cyclists (mean +/- SD age 25 +/- 4 yrs and VO2max 65.8 +/- 5 ml x kg(-1)min(-1)) performed tests assessing lower limb muscle FGC at rest (pre-test), as well as 6 and 24 hrs following CE performed on a mechanically-braked cycle ergometer. The CE consisted of 30 min at a workload corresponding to the lactate (Dmax) threshold (+/-15 W), and four 60 s rides at 120% VO2max with one min rest between each ride. At the completion of the CE a 6 or 24 hr recovery period was initiated, after which, each subject's muscle FGC was measured. The analysis of lower limb muscle FGC included, (1) 6 s all-out cycle test; (2) a maximal isokinetic leg extension at 60, 120 and 180 degrees x s(-1); and (3) a maximal concentric squat jump. Statistical analysis showed that compared to pre-test levels, a significant reduction in both isokinetic peak torque at 60 degrees x s(-1) and isoinertial maximum force occurred after 6 hrs of recovery. Although not significant, reductions also occurred at 6 hrs of recovery in isokinetic peak torque at 120 and 180 degrees x s(-1), as well as maximum rate of force development (RFD) during the squat jumps. No significant differences were observed between isokinetic peak torque, maximum force or RFD pre-test and following the 24 hr recovery period, indicating these tests had returned to normal by this time. No significant differences were found between peak power (PP) during the 6 s cycle test, pre-test and following either 6 or 24 hrs of recovery. These findings confirm earlier research that maximal voluntary strength is reduced for at least 6 hours following exhaustive dynamic exercise. The reduction in muscle FGC should be considered when resistance training is scheduled after endurance exercise.     

Managing procedural pain in children with burns. Part 1: Assessment of pain in children

Managing procedural pain in a child involves multiple factors, including how to evaluate the pain. This process is more difficult with children because of differences in cognitive and physical development. A multidimensional model for the assessment of pain in a pediatric burn patient is presented along with recommendations based on various levels of development.     

Subjective interpretation, laboratory error and the value of forensic DNA evidence: three case studies

This article discusses two factors that may profoundly affect the value of DNA evidence for proving that two samples have a common source: uncertainty about the interpretation of test results and the possibility of laboratory error. Three case studies are presented to illustrate the importance of the analyst's subjective judgments in interpreting some RFLP-based forensic DNA tests. In each case, the likelihood ratio describing the value of DNA evidence is shown to be dramatically reduced by uncertainty about the scoring of bands and the possibility of laboratory error. The article concludes that statistical estimates of the frequency of matching genotypes can be a misleading index of the value of DNA evidence, and that more adequate indices are needed. It also argues that forensic laboratories should comply with the National Research Council's recommendation that forensic test results be scored in a blind or objective manner.     

Toward a reconceptualization of the law of initial value.

Critically reviews the traditional model of the law of initial value ([LIV] J. Wilder, 1967): "the higher the initial value, the smaller the response to function-raising, the larger the response to function-depressing stimuli." Statistically, the usage of rDX, bDX, and bYX as the indices of LIV contains a spurious X(Y?–?X) effect. Moreover, defining initial value as a synonym of baseline is too narrow to cover an organism's various states. The parameter of structural relationship βe value and a null hypothesis test (βe?=?1) are recommended to examine initial-value dependency for different levels of initial value and trends of change. Data suggest that LIV should be revised as follows: The higher the initial value, the greater the organism's following reactivity, although a tendency to reversed responses may occur when the initial value reaches its upper extremity. Both phenomena are probably due to constitutional and homeostatic mechanisms, respectively. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Occupational stress and dentistry: theory and practice. Part II. Assessment and control

Since dentistry has been identified as being a stressful profession, dentists, with the help of the members of the dental team, must attempt to achieve a relatively stress-free working environment. In addition to recognising potential occupational stressors it is important for dentists to be able to assess their emotional responses to the practice of dentistry and to arrange their daily working lives in such a way as to reduce occupational stress. This paper examines the means by which dentists may assess occupational stress as well as person-centred and/or situation-centred strategies of coping with and controlling occupational stress in general dental practice.     

Cleavage initiation in the intercritically reheated coarse-grained heat-affected zone: Part I. Fractographic evidence

Tensile, crack opening displacement (COD), blunt notch, and Charpy impact tests were used to investigate cleavage initiation in the intercritically reheated coarse-grained heat-affected zone (IC CG HAZ) of three steels. The steels were chosen to provide different distributions and morphologies of MA (high-carbon martensite with some retained austenite) particles within the IC CG HAZ structure. Observation of minimum impact toughness values for the IC CG HAZ was found to be associated with a particular microstructure containing a near-connected grain boundary network of blocky MA particles, the MA particles being significantly harder than the internal grain microstructure. The initiation mechanism for this structure was determined to be from a combination of an overlap of residual transformational induced stress fields, due to the formation of the MA particles, between two closely spaced particles and stress concentration effects resulting from debonding of the particles.     

Development of the concept of anatomical constancy: Part 1.

Three developmental levels in the acquisition of anatomical constancy were identified in a group of children between 2 and 5 years of age on the basis of (a) a reproducible Guttman scale (the Anatomical Constancy Scale) of answers to sets of questions and (b) performance on specific tasks. The three levels that represent operationalized dimensions of the concept of anatomical constancy entail (a) the integration of part images of the body into a whole body image, (b) the establishment of a cohesive and inviolable body image, and (c) the capacity to retain a sense of the body's continuity over time. Transitions from one level to the next reflect advances in the formation of psychic structure. The results of this study indicate that the body image undergoes systematic changes as it develops into a constant, cohesive and inviolable whole. As children get older or acquire specific cognitive capacities, their body images become increasingly stable, cohesive, and continuous. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analysis of Traffic-Induced Vibrations in a Cable-Stayed Bridge. Part I: Experimental Assessment

This paper characterizes the experimental approach used for the evaluation of traffic-induced dynamic effects in Salgueiro Maia cable-stayed bridge. It presents the most significant results obtained both in terms of the static load tests developed at the commissioning phase, and of the dynamic tests under controlled heavy traffic. These tests were specifically conducted for the evaluation of dynamic amplification factors considering the passage of heavy trucks isolated or in groups, along several lanes and at different speeds. Furthermore, the experimental characterization of the random characteristics of the pavement roughness, using an appropriate spatial laser scanning measurement system, is referred.     

Restraint-free care. Part 1: Legal and regulatory mandates. Part 2: Creating a restraint-free environment

In response to the revised 1996 Joint Commission of Accreditation of Healthcare Organization's restraint standards, many facilities are assessing and revising their current practice. Part 1 discusses the regulatory, legal and ethical dimensions of patient restraints. Part 2 describes one hospital's approach to promoting a restraint-free environment. As a result of this hospital's assessment, restraint use decreased 25% in intubated patients; 50% in nonintubated patients.     

Logical reasoning in the supermarket: Adult females' use of a proportional reasoning strategy in an everyday context.

50 adult female shoppers in a supermarket were asked to determine which of 2 sizes of a common item sold in the store was the better buy. Only 32% were able to use a proportional reasoning strategy to determine the correct choice when the size ratio was a simple one (2:3). Performance declined even further (20% correct) when the ratio was more complex. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Diagnosing syncope. Part 1: Value of history, physical examination, and electrocardiography. Clinical Efficacy Assessment Project of the American College of Physicians

PURPOSE: To review the literature on diagnostic testing in syncope and provide recommendations for a comprehensive, cost-effective approach to establishing its cause. DATA SOURCES: Studies were identified through a MEDLINE search (1980 to present) and a manual review of bibliographies of identified articles. STUDY SELECTION: Papers were eligible if they addressed diagnostic testing in syncope or near syncope and reported results for at least 10 patients. DATA EXTRACTION: The usefulness of tests was assessed by calculating diagnostic yield: the number of patients with diagnostically positive test results divided by the number of patients tested or, in the case of monitoring studies, the sum of true-positive and true-negative test results divided by the number of patients tested. DATA SYNTHESIS: Despite the absence of a diagnostic gold standard and the paucity of data from randomized trials, several points emerge. First, history, physical examination, and electrocardiography are the core of the syncope workup (combined diagnostic yield, 50%). Second, neurologic testing is rarely helpful unless additional neurologic signs or symptoms are present (diagnostic yield of electroencephalography, computed tomography, and Doppler ultrasonography, 2% to 6%). Third, patients in whom heart disease is known or suspected or those with exertional syncope are at higher risk for adverse outcomes and should have cardiac testing, including echocardiography, stress testing. Holter monitoring, or intracardiac electrophysiologic studies, alone or in combination (diagnostic yields, 5% to 35%). Fourth, syncope in the elderly often results from polypharmacy and abnormal physiologic responses to daily events. Fifth, long-term loop electrocardiography (diagnostic yield, 25% to 35%) and tilt testing (diagnostic yield < or = 60%) are most useful in patients with recurrent syncope in whom heart disease is not suspected. Sixth, psychiatric evaluation can detect mental disorders associated with syncope in up to 25% of cases. Seventh, hospitalization may be indicated for patients at high risk for cardiac syncope (those with an abnormal electrocardiogram, organic heart disease, chest pain, history of arrhythmia, age > 70 years) or with acute neurologic signs. CONCLUSIONS: Many tests for syncope have a low diagnostic yield. A careful history, physical examination, and electrocardiography will provide a diagnosis or determine whether diagnostic testing is necessary in most patients.     

Elements of the Socratic method: II. Inductive reasoning.

The Socratic method uses systematic questioning and inductive reasoning to help clients derive universal definitions. In psychotherapy, inductive reasoning can be based on enumerative generalizations, analogical comparisons, and eliminative causal reasoning. Enumerative generalizations use pattern identification to support a conclusion about an entire group of events. Analogical comparisons help clients transfer knowledge from familiar to novel situations. Eliminative causal reasoning involves manipulating environmental conditions to examine possible causes of specific problematic events. After a probable cause has been identified, it can be modified through treatment. The clinical utility and fallacies of logical reasoning are discussed as they apply to each of the 3 forms of inductive reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Letter encoding in visual word identification: More evidence for a word-integration explanation for parafoveal preview effects in reading.

A letter string presented briefly in the parafovea facilitates naming a foveally presented word provided that the two stimuli are orthographically similar. The facilitation is asymmetrical in that to obtain it, both letter strings must have the first letters in common. One possible explanation, a letter-integration hypothesis, proposes that readers only identify the letters at the beginning of the parafoveal stimulus, an action that facilitates processing the target. Another explanation, a word-integration hypothesis, postulates that all the letters of the parafoveal stimulus are identified and that the asymmetry occurs because the first letters of the parafoveal stimulus are weighted more heavily than the later ones. The two accounts differ in the way the position of the first letter is determined. To distinguish the views, English and Hebrew stimuli were presented to 7 bilingual readers. 12 normal students participated as controls. Readers could not anticipate the position of the first letters; hence, if the letter-integration explanation is correct, the asymmetry in the priming should be attenuated. Consistent with the word-integration explanation, however, priming occurred when the target shared the beginning letters with the prime in both languages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Managing pain in labour. Part 1: Perceptions of pain

More and more, dentists are being asked to be involved in medical-legal proceedings. The criteria for being an expert is based upon education, training, and experience, all of which every licensed practicing dentist possesses. Dental record-keeping and unbiased, thorough case analysis are the important factor involved in medical-legal litigation.     

Causal reasoning in the social and nonsocial realms.

Examines the literature on the development of causal reasoning about social and physical phenomena. Contrary to previous claims, causal reasoning is neither identical nor substantially different across these 2 realms. Instead, there is fundamental overlap that derives from the fact that both social and physical causation are interpreted in generative, rather than empiricist, terms. Differences stem from the fact that the mechanism of causal generation differs in the 2 arenas. Physical effects are generated by transmissions of energy, whereas social or behavioral effects are generated by the enactment of intentions. Some causal inference rules are restricted to one domain or the other, while other rules are common to both domains. Young children were found not to confuse social and physical causation as previously claimed. (French abstract) (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)