Nitrogen utilization by lowland rice as affected by fertilization with urea and green manure

Field studies were conducted during two consecutive wet seasons in flooded rice (Oryza sativa L.) to determine the effect of green manure on urea utilization in a rice-fallow-rice cropping sequence. Replicated plots were fertilized with 60 to 120 kg of urea N ha^–1 in three split applications (50, 25 and 25%) with or without incorporation of dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata L.) (100 kg N ha^–1). During the first crop only 31 to 44% of the urea added was used by the rice. Incorporatingin situ grown dhaincha (GM) into the soil at transplanting had little effect on urea utilization. Forty-four to 54% of the N added was not recovered in the soil, rice crop, or as nitrate leachate during the first cropping season. Incorporation of GM had no effect on fertilizer N recovery. Only about 2% of the urea N added to the first rice crop was taken up by the second rice crop and, as in the first crop, the GM had little effect on residual N, either in amount or utilization.     

Effect of urea management on yield and N use efficiency of lowland rice on an acid sulfate soil

Field experiments were conducted during 1988–1989 at two adjacent sites on an acid sulfate soil (Sulfic Tropaquept) in Thailand to determine the influence of urea fertilization practices on lowland rice yield and N use efficiency. Almost all the unhydrolyzed urea completely disappeared from the floodwater within 8 to 10 d following urea application. A maximum partial pressure of ammonia (pNH₃) value of 0.14 Pa and an elevation in floodwater pH to about 7.5 following urea application suggest that appreciable loss of NH₃ could occur from this soil if wind speeds were favorable. Grain yields and N uptake were significantly increased with applied N over the control and affected by urea fertilization practices (4.7–5.7 Mg ha^–1 in dry season and 3.0–4.1 Mg ha^–1 in wet season). In terms of both grain yield and N uptake, incorporation treatments of urea as well as urea broadcasting onto drained soil followed by flooding 2 d later were more effective than the treatments in which the same fertilizer was broadcast directly into the floodwater either shortly or 10 d after transplanting (DT). The¹⁵N balance studies conducted in the wet season showed that N losses could be reduced to 31% of applied N by broadcasting of urea onto drained soil and flooding 2 d later compared with 52% loss by broadcasting of urea into floodwater at 10 DT. Gaseous N loss via NH₃ volatilization was probably responsible for the poor efficiency of broadcast urea in this study.     

Effect of crop residue management on nitrogen dynamics and balance in a lowland rice cropping system

Two field experiments were conducted in a rice–fallow–rice cropping sequence during consecutive dry and wet seasons of 1997 on a Fluvic Tropaquept to determine the fate and efficiency of broadcast urea in combination with three residue management practices (no residue, burned residue and untreated rice crop residue). Ammonia volatilization losses from urea (70 kg N ha^–1) broadcast into floodwater shortly after transplanting for 11 d were 7, 12 and 8% of the applied N from no residue, burned residue and residue treated plots, respectively. During that time, the cumulative percent of N₂ + N₂O emission due to urea addition corresponded to 10, 4.3 and nil, respectively. The ¹⁵N balance study showed that at maturity of the dry season crop, fertilizer N recovery by the grain was low, only 9 to 11% of the N applied. Fifty to 53% of the applied ¹⁵N remained in the soil after rice harvest, mainly in the upper 0–5 cm layer. The unaccounted for ¹⁵N ranged from 27 to 33% of the applied N and was unaffected by residue treatments. Only 4 to 5% of the initial ¹⁵N-labeled urea applied to the dry season rice crop was taken up by the succeeding rice crop, to which no additional N fertilizer was applied. Grain yield and N uptake were significantly increased (P=0.05) by N application in the dry season, but not significantly affected by residue treatments in either season.     

Nitrogen-15 and sulfur-35 balances for fertilizers applied to transplanted rainfed lowland rice

A field experiment was conducted on a poorly-drained Aeric Paleaquult in northeastern Thailand to determine the effect of N and S fertilizers on yield of rainfed lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and to determine the fate of applied¹⁵N- and³⁵S-labeled fertilizers. Rice yield and N uptake increased with applied N but not with applied S in either sulfate or elemental S (ES) form. Rice yield was statistically greater for deep placement of urea as urea supergranules (USG) than for all other N fertilizer treatments that included prilled urea (PU), urea amended with a urease inhibitor (phenyl phosphorodiamidate), and ammonium phosphate sulfate (16% N, 8.6% P).The applied¹⁵N-labeled urea (37 kg N ha^–1) not recovered in the soil/plant system at crop maturity was 85% for basal incorporation, 53% for broadcast at 12 days after transplanting (DT), 27% for broadcast at 5–7 days before panicle initiation (DBPI), and 49% for broadcast at panicle initiation (PI). The basal incorporated S (30 kg ha^–1) not recovered in the soil/plant system at crop maturity was 37% for sulfate applied as single superphosphate (SSP) and 34% for ES applied as granulated triple superphosphate fortified with S (S/GTSP). Some basal incorporated¹⁵N and³⁵S and some broadcast¹⁵N at PI was lost by runoff. Heavy rainfall at 3–4 days after basal N incorporation and at 1 day after PI resulted in water flow from rice fields at higher elevation and total inundation of the 0.15-m-high¹⁵N and³⁵S microplot borders. Unrecovered¹⁵N was only 14% for 75 kg urea-N ha^–1 deep placed as USG at transplanting. This low N loss from USG indicated that leaching was not a major N loss mechanism and that deep placement was relatively effective in preventing runoff loss.In order to assess the susceptibility of fertilizer-S to runoff loss, a subsequent field experiment was conducted to monitor³⁵S activity in floodwater for 42 days after basal incorporation of SSP and S/GTSP. Maximum³⁵S recoveries in the floodwater were 19% for SSP after 7 days and 7% for S/GTSP after 1 day. Recovery of³⁵S in floodwater after 14 days was 12% for SSP and 3% for S/GTSP.This research suggests that on poorly drained soils with a low sorption capacity, a sizeable fraction of the fertilizer S and N remains in the floodwater following application. Runoff could then be an important mechanism of nutrient loss in areas with high probability for inundation following intense rainfall.     

Effect of wheat straw application on ammonia volatilization from urea applied to a paddy field

A proper amount of nitrogen (N) fertilizer is critical for the ideal production in the wheat-rice rotation in the Yangtse Delta region of China and straw retention is important for sustaining soil quality and productivity. However, the effects of straw retention on paddy field ammonia volatilization from applied urea are unclear. The objectives of this study were to explore the effect of wheat straw retuned with urea and to evaluate how floodwater ammonium concentration and pH, soil Eh influence on flooded rice field ammonia volatilization. The study was conducted for 2?years using a lysimeter experiment included 5 treatments, urea applied at rates of 0, 180, 240?kg?N?ha^?1 with no retained straw, and at rates of 180 and 240?kg?N?ha^?1 with 6.5?t?ha^?1 of retained wheat straw. Urea was split into three applications: incorporated at transplanting, tillering, and topdressing at panicle emergence. Rice was flooded to a depth of 5?cm and grown in rotation with irrigated wheat as a source of straw. Averaged over the two levels of applied N, straw incorporation increased the floodwater ammonium concentration by 11.5?C22.5?%, pH by 0.13?C0.70 units but reduced topsoil Eh by 1.0?C47?mv. Ammonia volatilization increased with the increasing amounts of urea applied and with straw incorporated. With no retained straw, the average ammonia volatilization from the fertilized treatments was 40.4?kg?N?ha^?1, accounting for 15.8?% of the fertilizer-N. With retained wheat straw, the average ammonia volatilization from the fertilized treatments was 51.9?kg?N?ha^?1, accounting for 21.3?% of the fertilizer-N. The increase in ammonia volatilization caused by straw incorporation may be partly attributed to the presence of urease in the straw and to the increased pH in the floodwater. It is unclear whether the reduced redox potential also contributed to ammonia volatilization.     

Incorporation of urea for transplanted rice as affected by floodwater and growing season

Incorporation of urea into puddled rice soils is known to reduce ammoniacal-N buildup in floodwater and the subsequent loss of N as ammonia. Little is known, however, about seasonal and temperature effects on the effectiveness of basal urea incorporation in puddled soils. A field experiment was conducted in northern Vietnam on an Aquic Ustifluvent in the spring season (February to June) and summer season (July to November) to determine the effect of the presence of floodwater and method of fertilizer incorporation on floodwater ammoniacal-N, floodwater urea-N, andpNH₃ following urea application. During the 4 d following basal urea application, floodwater temperature at 1400 h was 7 to 15°C higher in summer (July) than that in spring (February), and floodwater pH at 1400 h was 0.5 to 1.0 higher in summer than that in spring. ThepNH₃ was much higher in summer than that in spring, suggesting a high potential for ammonia volatilization in summer. The movement of transplanters through the field did not reducepNH₃, irrespective of floodwater depth (0 or 5 cm) and season. Harrowing and subsequent transplanter movement partially reducedpNH₃ in the summer;pNH₃ reduction, however, was greater when floodwater depth was 0 rather than 5 cm during harrowing and transplanting. This partial reduction ofpNH₃ in summer did not result in a corresponding increase in rice yield, presumably because N losses were only slightly reduced and because yield was constrained by additional factors, such as the adverse climate. In spring, the removal of floodwater before urea application and incorporation increased grain yield by 0.2 Mg ha^–1, even thoughpNH₃ was consistently low and was not reduced by urea incorporation. This result suggests that water management and tillage during basal urea application may influence rice growth and yield in ways other than reduced N loss.     

The effect of the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide on the efficiency of urea application in a flooded rice field trial in Thailand

The compound N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (nBTPT) was tested for its ability to reduce the rate of urea hydrolysis in applications of urea at 10 d after transplanting flooded rice. The rates of urea hydrolysis were relatively slow, and nBTPT caused a 1-d reduction in the rate of disappearance of urea from the floodwater. Despite this, the vapor pressures of ammonia in the floodwater were significantly lower in the plots with nBTPT than without for the first 5 d following the N application. The vapor pressures of ammonia measured in the afternoons indicate that ammonia volatilization losses were considerable from the treatments without nBTPT and low from the treatments with nBTPT. There was no nitrogen response in this wet-season crop, apparently because of the high availability of N in the soil. N conserved from ammonia volatilization losses by use of the inhibitor was apparently susceptible to denitrification loss, and 50% of the fertilizer was lost in the 37 d following the application of¹⁵N-labeled urea both with and without the inhibitor.     

Determination of dinitrogen emission and retention in floodwater and porewater of a lowland rice field fertilized with15N-urea

This paper reports a study on the distribution of dinitrogen between the atmosphere, floodwater and porewater of the soil in a flooded rice field after addition of¹⁵N-labelled urea into the floodwater.Microplots (0.086 m²) were established in a rice field near Griffith, N.S.W., and labelled urea (80 kg N ha^–1 containing 79.25 atoms %¹⁵N) was added to the floodwater when the rice was at the panicle initiation stage. Emission of nitrous oxide and dinitrogen was measured directly during the day and overnight, using a cover collection method and gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric analytical methods. Ammonia volatilization was calculated with a bulk aerodynamic method from measurements of wind speed and floodwater pH, temperature and ammoniacal nitrogen concentration. Seven days after urea application the¹⁵N₂ content of the floodwater and soil porewater was determined and total fertilizer nitrogen loss was calculated from an isotopic balance.Throughout the experimental period gas fluxes were low; nitrous oxide, ammonia and dinitrogen flux densities were less than 5, 170 and 720 g N ha^–1 d^–1, respectively. The greatest dinitrogen flux density was observed two days after urea addition and this declined to ~ 100 g ha^–1 d^–1 after seven days.The data indicate that, of the urea nitrogen added, 0.02% was lost to the atmosphere as nitrous oxide, 0.9% was lost by ammonia volatilization, and 3.6% was lost as dinitrogen gas during the 7 days of measurement. At the end of this period 0.028% and 0.002% of the added nitrogen was retained as dinitrogen gas in the floodwater and soil porewater respectively. Recovery of the¹⁵N applied as nitrogen gases, plant uptake, and soil and floodwater constituents totaled about 94% of the nitrogen added.     

Effect of phenyl phosphorodiamidate on the fate of urea applied to wetland rice fields

The effect of phenyl phosphorodiamidate (PPD) on floodwater properties, N uptake,¹⁵N recovery, and grain yield of wetland rice (Oryza sativa L.) was evaluated in a series of field studies conducted at Muñoz and Los Baños, Philippines. Prilled urea and PPD-amended urea were applied to soil and incorporated immediately prior to transplanting or applied to floodwater after transplanting. Urea was also deep-placed or added in a coated form in two studies.The addition of PPD with urea retarded urea hydrolysis by 1–3 days, depending on the time and method of application. Significant reductions in the concentration of ammoniacal-N in floodwater resulted when PPD-amended urea was applied between 18 and 26 days after transplanting (DT). In contrast, PPD did not appreciably affect the concentration of ammoniacal-N in floodwater when applied with urea either immediately before or after transplanting of the seedlings.Plant N uptake and grain yield were not significantly affected by the addition of PPD with urea in three of the four experiments conducted, even though PPD substantially reduced the concentration of ammoniacal-N in the floodwater in several treatments in these studies. The¹⁵N balance studies conducted at both field locations showed PPD to increase total¹⁵N recovery by between 10% and 14% of the¹⁵N applied, 14 days after the application of urea. No further loss of¹⁵N occurred between the initial sampling (40 DT) and grain harvest at Los Baños. An increase in¹⁵N recovery occurred at grain harvest at Muñoz because¹⁵N-labeled urea was applied at 50 DT in the study. PPD increased the amount of¹⁵N in the plant and nonexchangeable soil N fraction at all harvests at Los Baños. In contrast, at Muñoz, PPD increased the quantity of¹⁵N in the KCL-extractable pool 14 days after urea was applied. Reasons for the discrepancies in results between experiments and the overall failure of PPD to increase grain yield are discussed.     

Recovery of 15N-labelled fertilizer applied to winter wheat and perennial ryegrass crops and residual 15N recovery by succeeding wheat crops under different crop residue management practices

The recovery of ¹⁵N-labelled fertilizer applied to a winter wheat (120 kg N ha^–1) and also a perennial ryegrass (60 kg N ha^–1) crop grown for seed for 1 year in the Canterbury region of New Zealand in the 1993/94 season was studied in the field. After harvests, ryegrass and wheat residues were subjected to four different residue management practices (i.e. ploughed, rotary hoed, mulched and burned) and three subsequent wheat crops were grown, the first succeeding wheat crop sown in 1994/95 to examine the effects of different crop residue management practices on the residual ¹⁵N recovery by succeeding wheat crops. Total ¹⁵N recoveries by the winter wheat and ryegrass (seed, roots and tops) were 52% and 41%, respectively. Corresponding losses of ¹⁵N from the crop-soil systems represented by un-recovered ¹⁵N in crop and soil were 12% and 35%, respectively. These losses were attributed to leaching and denitrification. The proportions of ¹⁵N retained in the soil (0-400 mm depth) at the time of harvest of winter wheat and ryegrass were 36% and 24%, respectively. Although the soil functioned as a substantial sink for fertilizer N, the recovery of this residual fertilizer by subsequent three winter wheat crops was low (1-5%) and this was not affected by different crop residue management practices.     

Effect of green manuring with Sesbania aculeata and nitrogen fertilization on the performance of direct-seeded flood-prone lowland rice

Green manuring of rice with dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) is widely practised under irrigated puddle-transplanted conditions. In flood-prone lowlands, the rice is established through direct seeding early in the season and flooding occurs after 1–2 months of crop growth following regular rains. The low yields are due to poor crop stands and difficulty in nitrogen management under higher depths of water. The effect of green manuring with dhaincha intercropped with direct-seeded rice vis-à-vis the conventional practice of incorporating pure dhaincha before transplanting was investigated under flood-prone lowland conditions (up to 50–80 cm water depth) at Cuttack, India. Treatment variables studied in different years (1992, 1994 and 1995) were: rice varieties of different plant heights, crop establishment through direct seeding and transplanting, varying length of periods before dhaincha incorporation, and urea N fertilizer levels. Dhaincha accumulated 80–86 kg N ha^-1 in pure stand and 58–79 kg N ha^-1 when intercropped with direct-seeded rice in alternate rows at 50 days of growth. The growth of rice improved after dhaincha was uprooted manually and buried in situ between the rice rows when water depth was 10–20 cm in the field. The panicle number was lower but the panicle weight was higher with dhaincha green manuring than with recommended level of 40 kg N ha^-1 applied as urea. The grain yield was significantly higher with direct seeding than with transplanting due to high water levels (>60 cm) immediately after transplanting. Dhaincha manuring was at par with 40 kg N ha^-1 as urea in increasing the yield of direct-seeded and transplanted crops. The highest yield of direct-seeded crop was obtained when 20 kg N ha^-1 was applied at sowing and dhaincha was incorporated at 50 days of growth. The results indicate that green manuring of direct-seeded rice with intercropped dhaincha is beneficial for substituting urea fertilizer up to 40 kg N ha^-1 and augmenting crop productivity under flood-prone lowland conditions.     

Fate of nitrogen fertilizer applied to lowland rice on a Sulfic Tropaquept

A field experiment was conducted on an acid sulfate soil in Thailand to determine the effect of N fertilization practices on the fate of fertilizer-N and yield of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.). A delayed broadcast application of ammonium phosphate sulfate (16-20-0) or urea was compared with basal incorporation of urea, deep placement of urea as urea supergranules (USG), and amendment of urea with a urease inhibitor. Deep placement of urea as USG significantly reduced floodwater urea- and ammoniacal-N concentrations following N application but did not reduce N loss, as determined from an¹⁵N balance, in this experiment where runoff loss was prevented. The urease inhibitor, phenyl phosphorodiamidate (PPD), had little effect on floodwater urea- and ammoniacal-N, and it did not reduce N loss. The floodwater pH never exceeded 4.5 in the 7 days following the first N applications, and application of 16-20-0 reduced floodwater pH by 0.1 to 0.3 units below the no-N control. The low floodwater pH indicated that ammonia volatilization was unimportant for all the N fertilization practices. Floodwater ammoniacal-N concentrations following application of urea or 16-20-0 were greater on this Sulfic Tropaquept than on an Andaqueptic Haplaquoll with near neutral pH and alkaline floodwater. The prolonged, high floodwater N concentrations on this Sulfic Tropaquept suggested that runoff loss of applied N might be a potentially serious problem when heavy rainfall or poor water control follow N fertilization. The unaccounted-for¹⁵N in the¹⁵N balances, which presumably represented gaseous N losses, ranged from 20 to 26% of the applied N and was unaffected by urea fertilization practice. Grain yield and N uptake were significantly increased with applied N, but grain yield was not significantly affected by urea fertilization practice. Yield was significantly lower (P = 0.05) for 16-20-0 than for urea; however, this difference in yield might be due to later application of P and hence delayed availability of P in the 16-20-0 treatment.     

Effects of different levels of chemical Nitrogen (urea) onAzolla and Blue-green algae intercropping with rice

Application of higher levels (60 and 90 kg N ha^–1) of nitrogen fertilizer (Urea) inhibited the growth ofAzolla pinnata (Bangkok) and blue-green algae (BGA) though the reduction was more in BGA thanAzolla. Inoculation of 500 kg ha^–1 of freshAzolla 10 days after transplanting (DAT) in the rice fields receiving 30, 60 and 90 kg N ha^–1 as urea produced an average of 16.5, 15.0 and 13.0 t ha^–1 fresh biomass ofAzolla at 30 DAT, which contained 31, 31 and 27 kg N ha^–1, respectively. The dry mixture of BGA (60%Aulosira, 35%Gloeotrichia and 5% other BGA on fresh weight basis) inoculated in rice field 3 DAT at a rate of 10 kg ha^–1 showed a mat formation at 80 DAT with an average fresh biomass of 8.0, 5.8 and 4.2 t ha^–1 containing 22, 17 and 12 kg N ha^–1, respectively with those N fertilizer doses.Application ofAzolla showed positive responses to rice crop by increasing the panicle number and weight, grain and straw yields and nitrogen uptake in rice significantly at all the levels of chemical nitrogen. But, the BGA inoculation had a significant effect on the grain and straw yields only during the dry season in the treatment where 30 kg N was applied. During the wet season and in the other treatments performed during the dry season no significant increase in yields, yield components and N uptake were observed with BGA.The intercropping ofAzolla and rice in combination with 30, 60 and 90 kg N ha^–1 as urea showed the yields, yield attributes and nitrogen uptake in rice at par with those obtained by applying 60, 90 and 120 kg N ha^–1 as urea, respectively but, the BGA did not. The analysis of soil from rice field after harvest showed thatAzolla and BGA intercropping with rice in combination with chemical fertilizer significantly increased the organic carbon, available phosphorus and total nitrogen of soil.     

Time and mode of nitrogen fertilizer application to tropical wetland rice

In experiments with transplanted rice (Oryza sativa L.) at the International Rice Research Institute, Philippines, two methods of split application of urea and ammonium sulfate were compared with deep, point placement (10 cm) of urea supergranules and broadcast application of a slow-release fertilizer sulfur-coated urea (SCU). Comparisons were made in the wet and dry seasons and were based on rice yield and N uptake. Urea- and ammonium-N concentrations and pH of the floodwater were measured to aid interpretation of the results.Split applications of urea were generally less efficient than ammonium sulfate. The split in which the initial fertilizer dose was broadcast and incorporated into the soil before transplanting was more effective than the split in which the fertilizer was broadcast directly into the floodwater 21 days after transplanting. Both split applications were inferior to the urea supergranules and SCU, in terms of both yield and N uptake efficiency; average apparent N recoveries ranged from 30% for the delayed split urea to 80% for the urea supergranule.Broadcast applications of urea and ammonium sulfate produced high floodwater concentrations of urea- and ammonium-N, which fell to zero within 4–5 days. Floodwater pH was as high as 9.3 and fluctuated diurnally due to heavy algal growth. Ammonia volatilization and algal immobilization of N in the floodwater were probably responsible for the poor efficiency of the split applications; the supergranules and SCU on the other hand produced low floodwater N concentrations and were efficiently used by the rice crop.     

The effect of fertilizer placement on nitrogen uptake and yield of wheat and maize in Chinese loess soils

Field trials were carried out to study the fate of¹⁵N-labelled urea applied to summer maize and winter wheat in loess soils in Shaanxi Province, north-west China. In the maize experiment, nitrogen was applied at rates of 0 or 210 kg N ha^–1, either as a surface application, mixed uniformly with the top 0.15 m of soil, or placed in holes 0.1 m deep adjacent to each plant and then covered with soil. In the wheat experiment, nitrogen was applied at rates of 0, 75 or 150 kg N ha^–1, either to the surface, or incorporated by mixing with the top 0.15 m, or placed in a band at 0.15 m depth. Measurements were made of crop N uptake, residual fertilizer N and soil mineral N. The total above-ground dry matter yield of maize varied between 7.6 and 11.9 t ha^–1. The crop recovery of fertilizer N following point placement was 25% of that applied, which was higher than that from the surface application (18%) or incorporation by mixing (18%). The total grain yield of wheat varied between 4.3 and 4.7 t ha^–1. In the surface applications, the recovery of fertilizer-derived nitrogen (25%) was considerably lower than that from the mixing treatments and banded placements (33 and 36%). The fertilizer N application rate had a significant effect on grain and total dry matter yield, as well as on total N uptake and grain N contents. The main mechanism for loss of N appeared to be by ammonia volatilization, rather than leaching. High mineral N concentrations remained in the soil at harvest, following both crops, demonstrating a potential for significant reductions in N application rates without associated loss in yield.     

Nitrogen input, <Superscript>15</Superscript>N balance and mineral N dynamics in a rice–wheat rotation in southwest China

A field experiment and farm survey were conducted to test nitrogen (N) inputs, ¹⁵N-labelled fertilizer balance and mineral N dynamics of a rice–wheat rotation in southwest China. Total N input in one rice–wheat cycle averaged about 448 kg N ha⁻¹, of which inorganic fertilizer accounted for 63% of the total. The effects of good N management strategies on N cycling were clear: an optimized N treatment with a 27% reduction in total N fertilizer input over the rotation decreased apparent N loss by 52% and increased production (sum of grain yield of rice and wheat) compared with farmers’ traditional practice. In the ¹⁵N-labelled fertilizer experiment, an optimized N treatment led to significantly lower ¹⁵N losses than farmers’ traditional practice; N loss mainly occurred in the rice growing season, which accounted for 82% and 67% of the total loss from the rotation in farmers’ fields and the optimized N treatment, respectively. After the wheat harvest, accumulated soil mineral N ranged from 42 to 115 kg ha⁻¹ in farmers’ fields, of which the extractable soil NO₃ ⁻–N accounted for 63%. However, flooding soil for rice production significantly reduced accumulated mineral N after the wheat harvest: in the ¹⁵N experiment, farmers’ practice led to considerable accumulation of mineral N after the wheat harvest (125 kg ha⁻¹), of which 69% was subsequently lost after 13 days of flooding. Results from this study indicate the importance of N management in the wheat-growing season, which affects N dynamics and N losses significantly in the following rice season. Integrated N management should be adopted for rice–wheat rotations in order to achieve a better N recovery efficiency and lower N loss.     

Impact of organic residue management on nitrogen use efficiency in an annual rice cropping sequence of lowland Central Thailand

Field experiments were conducted in Central Thailand under a rice–fallow–rice cropping sequence during consecutive dry and wet seasons of 1998 to determine the impact of residue management on fertilizer nitrogen (N) use. Treatments consisted of a combination of broadcast urea (70 kg N ha^–1) with rice straw (C/N 67) and rice hull ash (C/N 76), which were incorporated into the puddled soil 1 week before transplanting at a rate of 5 Mg ha^–1. Nitrogen-15 balance data showed that the dry season rice recovered 10 to 20% of fertilizer N at maturity. Of the applied N, 27 to 36% remained in the soil. Loss of N (unaccounted for) from the soil–plant system ranged from 47 to 54% of applied N. The availability of the residue fertilizer N to a subsequent rice crop was only less than 3% of the initial applied N. During both season fallows NO₃-N remained the dominant form of mineral-N (NO₃+NH₄) in the aerobic soil. In the dry season grain yield response to N application was significant (P=0.05). Organic material sources did not significantly change grain yield and N accumulation in rice. In terms of grain yields and N uptake at maturity, there was no significant residual effect of fertilizer N on the subsequent rice crop. The combined use of organic residues with urea did not improve N use efficiency, reduced N losses nor produced higher yields compared to urea alone. These results suggested that mechanisms such as N loss through gaseous N emissions may account for the low fertilizer N use efficiency from this rice cropping system. Splitting fertilizer N application should be considered on the fertilizer N use from the organic residue amendment.     

Response of rainfed bread and durum wheat to source,level and timing of nitrogen fertilizer on two Ethiopian Vertisols: II. N uptake,recovery and efficiency

In trials conducted at 2 highland Vertisol sites in Ethiopia in 1990 and 1991, 2 locally popular wheat cultivars, 1 spring bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and 1 durum wheat (T. durum Desf.), were supplied with nitrogen (N) fertilizer at 0, 60 and 120 kg N ha^–1 in the form of large granular urea (LGU), standard urea prills or ammonium sulfate. N was applied all at sowing, all at mid-tillering or split-applied between these two stages (1/3:2/3). While durum wheat exhibited the highest N concentration in grain and straw, bread wheat, because of its higher productivity, resulted in a greater grain and total N uptake. In general, split application of N and use of LGU as N source enhanced grain and total N uptake, apparent N recovery and agronomic efficiency of N, particularly under severe water-logging stress. Where significant, the interactions among the experimental factors substantiated the superior responsiveness of the bread wheat cultivar to fertilizer N, and the beneficial effects of split N application and LGU as an N source. Split application of N tended to nullify the positive effects of LGU, presumably by approximating the delayed release of N achieved with LGU. Considering the potential benefits to Ethiopian peasant farmers and consumers, split application of N should be advocated, particularly on water-logged Vertisols; LGU could be an advantageous N source assuming a cost comparable to the conventional N source urea.     

Processes of nitrogen loss from fertilizers applied to flooded rice fields on a calcareous soil in north-central China

Losses of nitrogen were investigated after applications of ammonium bicarbonate and urea to flooded rice at transplanting. Ammonia (NH₃) volatilization was determined by direct micrometeorological methods, and total loss of fertilizer nitrogen (N) was measured by¹⁵N balance. All the loss appeared to be in gaseous forms, since there was no evidence of leaching and runoff was prevented. The difference between N loss and NH₃ loss was thus assumed to be denitrification loss.Both NH₃ volatilization and denitrification losses were large, being 39% and 33%, respectively, of the ammonium bicarbonate N, and 30% and 33%, respectively, of the urea N applied by farmers' methods.Ammonia fluxes from the field fertilized with ammonium bicarbonate were very high for two days, and then declined rapidly as the NH₃ source in the floodwater diminished. Moderate fluxes from the field fertilized with urea continued over 6 days, but calculations showed that NH₃ transfer from floodwater to atmosphere was retarded during the middle period of the experiment, particularly on day 2 when a thick algal scum appeared on the water surface. The results indicate that this algal mass obstructed the transport of NH₃ across the water-air interface until the scum was dispersed by wind action. Nevertheless, the prolonged NH₃ losses on the urea treatment were due primarily to high floodwater pH values promoted by the strong algal growth during the daylight hours.Nitrogen-15 balance studies showed that incorporation of fertilizer into drained soil substantially increased recoveries of fertilizer N in rice plants and soil compared with incorporation of fertilizer in the presence of standing floodwater. Ammonia loss measurements on these treatments when urea was applied suggested that the improvement in fertilizer N efficiency was due mainly to reductions in NH₃ loss.     

Crop production,nitrogen recovery and water use efficiency in rice–wheat rotation as affected by non-flooded mulching cultivation (NFMC)

Non-flooded mulching cultivation (NFMC) for lowland rice, as a novel water-saving technique, has been practiced in many areas of China since the 1990s. However, the information on NFMC effects on crop production, nitrogen and water use in rice–wheat rotations is still limited. A field experiment using ¹⁵N-labeled urea was conducted to evaluate the impacts of NFMC on crop yield, fertilizer N recovery and water use efficiency in rice–wheat rotations. Plastic film mulching (PM), and wheat straw and plastic film double mulching (SPM) resulted in the same rice grain yield (7.2 t ha^–1) while wheat straw mulching (SM) and no mulching (NM) led to 5 and 10% yield reduction, compared with rice under traditional flooding (TF). In the rice–wheat rotation, crop productivity in PM, SM or SPM was comparable to that in TF but greater than in NM. Weed growth and its competition with rice for nitrogen were considered the main reason that led to yield decline in NM. Compared with TF, NFMC treatments did not obviously affect fertilizer N recoveries in plant and soil in both rice and wheat seasons. The total fertilizer N recoveries in crop, weed and soil in all treatments were only 39–44% in R–W rotations, suggesting that large N losses occurred following one basal N application for each growing season. Water use efficiency, however, was 56–75% greater in NFMC treatments than in TF treatment in the R–W rotation. The results revealed that NFMC (except NM) can produce comparable rice and wheat yields and obtain similar fertilizer N recovery as TF with much less water consumption.