Water Resource Availability in Three Catchments of Swaziland under Expected Climate Change

Abstract

The greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, HFCs, PFCs, and SF₆) concentrations in the atmosphere have increased very much since the industrial revolution. The greenhouse gas effect has been projected to cause a global average temperature increase on the order of 1.4 to 5.8°C over the period of 1990 to 2100. The global average annual precipitation is projected to increase during the 21^st century due to the greenhouse effect. The impact of climate change on hydrology and water resources in the three catchments of Swaziland (Komati, Mbuluzi and Ngwavuma) has been evaluated using General Circulation Model results (rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, air temperature etc.) as inputs to a rainfall runoff model. Three General Circulation Models (GCMs) namely: Canadian Climate Change Equilibrium (CCC-EQ); Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) and United Kingdom Transient Resilient (UKTR) were found appropriate for use to project the temperature and precipitation changes for Swaziland for year 2075. This information was used to generate the temperature, precipitation and potential evapotranspiration values for the three catchments for year 2075 which was input into a calibrated WatBall rainfall runoff model. Simulation results without taking into consideration of water use projections show that there will be high flows during the summer months but low flows during the winter months. Simulation results after taking into consideration of water use projections show a water deficit from June to September in both the Komati, and Ngwavuma catchments and a water deficit from May to September in the Mbuluzi catchment. This means that the environmental water needs and Swaziland's water release obligation in the three catchments to South Africa and Mozambique will not be met during the winter months under expected climate change conditions.     

气候变化对嘉陵江流域水资源量的影响分析

 嘉陵江是长江的最大支流,流域面积约16万km2。针对2050,2100年不同的气候变化情景,选取较为不利的参数组合,根据降水、气温、湿度、风速、日照等气候要素的变化,建立潜在蒸发量模型计算流域的潜在蒸发量（ET0）,再根据流域内植被的蒸散发系数（Kc）,计算流域的面平均蒸散发量（ETc）。并利用流域面平均降水量减去径流深得到流域的实际蒸散发量,对计算的流域面平均蒸散发量进行验证。对不同的水平年利用降水的预测成果（气候变化情景不同具有不同的降水量预测成果）及计算流域的面平均蒸散发量,根据水量平衡模型分析计算气候变化对嘉陵江流域水量的影响。结果表明：不利条件下2050年年径流将减少23.0%～27.9%;2100将减少28.2%～35.2%;2050,2100年平均年径流分别相当于目前7年一遇和12年一遇的干旱年。由此说明,气候变化对流域内的水资源量影响十分显著。      

Energy budget considerations for hydro-climatic impact assessment in Great Lakes watersheds

Given the large share of the water budget contributed by evapotranspiration (ET), accurately estimating ET is critical for hydro-climate change studies. Routinely, hydrologic models use temperature proxy relationships to estimate potential evapotranspiration (PET) when forced using GCM/RCM projections of precipitation and temperature. A limitation of this approach is that the temperature proxy relationships do not account for the conservation of energy needed to estimate ET consistently in climate change scenarios. In particular, PET methods using temperature as a proxy fail to account for the negative feedback of ET on surface temperature. Using several GCM projections and a hydrologic model developed for the Great Lakes basin watersheds, the NOAA Large Basin Runoff Model (LBRM), the importance of maintaining a consistent energy budget in hydrologic and climate models is demonstrated by comparing runoff projections from temperature proxy and energy conservation methods. Differences in hydrologic responses are related to watershed characteristics, hydrologic model parameters and climate variables. It is shown that the temperature proxy approach consistently leads to prediction of relatively large and potentially unrealistic reductions in runoff. Therefore, hydrologic projections adhering to energy conservation principles are recommended for use in climate change impact studies.     

Spatiotemporal Change of Blue Water and Green Water Resources in the Headwater of Yellow River Basin,China

The headwater of Yellow River Basin (HYRB) is crucial for the water resources of the whole basin in Northwest China. Based on the semi-distributed hydrological model “Soil and Water Assessment Tool” (SWAT), the spatiotemporal change trends of blue water and green water resources in the HYRB were analyzed quantificationally. By using the Sequential Uncertainty Fitting program (SUFI-2), the model was calibrated at Tangnaihai hydrological station and uncertainty analysis was performed. The results showed that the total water resources decreased by 1.08 billion m³ over the past five decades in the HYRB. Blue water and green water storage (soil water) presented the downtrend, while green water flow (actual evapotranspiration) increased between 1961 and 2010. The decrease in blue water resources were mainly attributed to the decrease in precipitation in the southwest parts of the study area while the increase in actual evapotranspiration and the decrease in soil water were the results of the uptrend of air temperature. In 1990s, an enormous transition occurred between the blue water (24.86 %) and green water flow (63.46 %). At seasonal scale, the largest down trend of blue water and uptrend of actual evapotranspiration all occurred in autumn. The decrease ratios of them were 88.3 and 83.1 % in inter-annual variation, respectively. The study can provided a scientific basis for integrated water resources management under the background of global climate change and human activity.     

Impact of Climate Change on the Hydrology of Upper Tiber River Basin Using Bias Corrected Regional Climate Model

The use of regional climate model (RCM) outputs has been getting due attention in most European River basins because of the availability of large number of the models and modelling institutes in the continent; and the relative robustness the models to represent local climate. This paper presents the hydrological responses to climate change in the Upper Tiber River basin (Central Italy) using bias corrected daily regional climate model outputs. The hydrological analysis include both control (1961–1990) and future (2071–2100) climate scenarios. Three RCMs (RegCM, RCAO, and PROMES) that were forced by the same lateral boundary condition under A2 and B2 emission scenarios were used in this study. The projected climate variables from bias corrected models have shown that the precipitation and temperature tends to decrease and increase in summer season, respectively. The impact of climate change on the hydrology of the river basin was predicted using physically based Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The SWAT model was first calibrated and validated using observed datasets at the sub-basin outlet. A total of six simulations were performed under each scenario and RCM combinations. The simulated result indicated that there is a significant annual and seasonal change in the hydrological water balance components. The annual water balance of the study area showed a decrease in surface runoff, aquifer recharge and total basin water yield under A2 scenario for RegCM and RCAO RCMs and an increase in PROMES RCM under B2 scenario. The overall hydrological behaviour of the basin indicated that there will be a reduction of water yield in the basin due to projected changes in temperature and precipitation. The changes in all other hydrological components are in agreement with the change in projected precipitation and temperature.     

厄瓜多尔区域水文平衡研究

采用厄瓜多尔147个气象站多年实测降水、温度、风速、湿度、日照等气象数据,分析研究了西部太平洋水系区、中部安第斯山区和东部亚马逊平原区降水、潜在蒸散发、土壤水分储存变化、实际蒸发量及土壤水的盈余或赤字量等水文平衡过程。研究方法基于Thornthwaite水平衡模型,需要输入降水量、潜在蒸散发量和土壤最大含水量等重要参数。潜在蒸散发量研究采用FAO-56 Penman-Monteith法和改进的Thornthwaite法。研究成果清晰展示了降水、蒸发、水量盈余或赤字的时空分布,对于研究该地区土壤水分的变化,优化农作物种植结构及播种、灌溉时机,水资源优化配置和水利工程规划可提供重要参考。     

The effects of climate change on the water resources of the Geumho River Basin,Republic of Korea

Assessments of the variation and vulnerability of water resources due to climate change are essential for future planning in agriculture. In this study, the impacts and uncertainty associated with climate change on water resources in the Geumho River Basin were measured based on the relative change in the mean annual runoff and the aridity index. Statistically adjusted and downscaled multi-ensemble General Circulation Model (GCM) predicted rainfall and temperature data for three representative concentration pathways (RCPs) (RCP2.6, 4.5 and 8.5) were applied to two lumped parameter conceptual rainfall runoff models. The results revealed considerable uncertainty in the projected temperature, rainfall, potential evapotranspiration (PET), runoff and aridity index (AI). Additionally, temperature and rainfall were predicted to increase significantly in the future. The PET was projected to increase by a mean (range) of 9% (7–12%), 18% (9–30%) and 25% (8–49%), while the mean annual runoff was projected to change by a mean (range) of 1% (−33 to 40%), −9% (−47 to 27%) and −4% (−44 to 35%), in the 2030s, 2060s and 2090s, respectively. The AI was projected to decrease in the future, particularly for the RCP8.5. Overall, the results of this study indicate that climate change will most likely lead to lower water resource levels than are currently present in the Geumho River Basin.     

基于SWAT模型的秦淮河流域气候变化水文响应研究

为了解气候变化对水文水资源的影响机理,以秦淮河流域为研究区构建SWAT模型,使用SWAT-CUP对模型进行参数敏感性分析、率定及验证,并采用任意假设法设计未来气候情景,分析温度及降雨变化对流域径流及实际蒸散发量的影响。结果表明:模型在月径流模拟中具有较高的精度,适用于秦淮河流域气候变化下的水文响应研究;气温降低或降雨量上升都会引起流域径流量增加,反之则减少;实际蒸散发量与降雨量正相关,而实际蒸散发量对气温变化的响应不明显;平水年径流量对降雨量变化的响应较强,枯水年径流量对温度变化的响应较强;枯水年实际蒸散发量对降雨量变化的响应较强。     

城镇化和闸坝对沙颍河流量的影响研究

分布式水文模型PRMS(The Precipitation Runoff Modeling System)考虑了降水、气候和土地利用等因素,可模拟产流、产沙等描述流域水和物质循环的重要变量。利用沙颍河实测流量资料对建立的PRMS模型进行了校正和验证,据此模拟了该流域城镇化和闸坝工程对沙颍河流量的影响,结果表明:城镇化使地面不透水面积增加,导致流域蒸散量和降雨入渗减少,产流量增加,而闸坝等水工建筑物改变了流域水资源的时空分配,减弱了自然径流量的波动性,增加了水面蒸发,使流域径流量峰值减小,径流洪峰滞后。城镇化和闸坝对河流径流的影响在枯水年尤为明显。     

陕西卤泊滩改良盐渍农田实际蒸散发估算方法比较

蒸散发是能量循环与水循环的结合,准确测定与估算区域蒸散发对水资源规划与管理、农业节水研究、作物产量模拟等方面具有重要的现实意义。以陕西省富平县改良盐渍农田为研究对象,以涡度相关法的实测资料为基准,采用Hargreaves-Samani法(HS法)、修正的彭曼-蒙蒂斯法(P-M法)、Priestley-Taylor法(P-T法)估算盐渍农田实际蒸散量,比较并检验了在不同时间尺度,不同生育期,不同天气条件下这些估算方法的精度,以期为类似盐渍农田蒸散量估算提供借鉴。计算结果表明:在研究期内,P-M法估算效果最优,P-T法次之,HS法效果较差,且精度允许范围内,从计算方法的繁简与需求资料难易角度考虑,P-T法较P-M法更适合。     

Climate change projections of temperature and precipitation for the great lakes basin using the PRECIS regional climate model

The Great Lakes Basin plays an important role in the economy and society of the United States and Canada, and climate change in this region may affect many sectors. In this study, six GCM simulations were downscaled to resolve the Great Lakes using a regional climate model (RCM) with 25 km × 25 km resolution. This model was used to project changes in temperature and precipitation during the mid-century (2040–2069) and late-century (2070–2099) over the Great Lakes basin region with reference to a baseline of 1980–2009. The whole-basin annual mean temperature is projected to increase 2.1 °C to 4.0 °C above the baseline during the mid-century, and 3.3 °C to 6.0 °C during the late-century. Summer temperatures in the southern portion of the basin are projected to increase more than the temperatures in the northern portion of the basin; whereas winter temperatures are projected to increase more in the north than in the south. Estimates of the whole-basin annual precipitation with respect to the baseline vary from −3.0% to 16.5% during the mid-century and −2.9% to 21.6% during the late-century, respectively. Future summer precipitation in southwestern areas of this region is expected to decrease by 20%–30% compared to the baseline, but winter precipitation (mostly snow) is expected to increase by 11.6% and 15.4% during the mid-century and late-century. This study highlights the effects of the large expanses of water (such as the Great Lakes) on regional climate projections and the associated uncertainties of climate change.     

气候变化对灌区农业需水量的影响研究

气候变暖不仅影响水资源量及其时空分布的变化,而且也会使农作物蒸发蒸腾量增加,从而加剧农业水资源供需矛盾。因此,研究气候变化对农业需水量的影响对保障农业用水安全具有重要的意义。本文利用陕西省宝鸡峡灌区11个气象站28 a的气象资料,分析了灌区气候变化特征;计算了主要作物需水量和农田灌溉需水量;利用单因素敏感性分析法研究了气候变化对农业需水量的影响。研究结果表明:灌区年平均气温显著上升,降水量持续下降,蒸发量明显增大,大部分地区相对湿度和风速显著下降,而日照时数有所增加;冬小麦、玉米、棉花和油菜生育期需水量明显增加;各气候因素对农田灌溉需水量影响顺序为:降水量>相对湿度>最高气温>日照时数>平均气温>风速,气温的上升、相对湿度的下降、降水量的减少以及日照时数的增大使作物需水量明显增大,而灌溉面积减小使农业需水量有减少的趋势。     

Estimation of future water resources of Xiangjiang River Basin with VIC model under multiple climate scenarios

Variation trends of water resources in the Xiangjiang River Basin over the coming decades have been investigated using the variable infiltration capacity(VIC) model and 14 general circulation models'(GCMs') projections under the representative concentration pathway(RCP4.5) scenario. Results show that the Xiangjiang River Basin will probably experience temperature rises during the period from 2021 to2050, with precipitation decrease in the 2020 s and increase in the 2030 s. The VIC model performs well for monthly discharge simulations with better performance for hydrometric stations on the main stream of the Xiangjiang River than for tributary catchments. The simulated annual discharges are significantly correlated to the recorded annual discharges for all the eight selected target stations. The Xiangjiang River Basin may experience water shortages induced by climate change. Annual water resources of the Xiangjiang River Basin over the period from 2021 to 2050 are projected to decrease by 2.76% on average within the range from-7.81% to 7.40%. It is essential to consider the potential impact of climate change on water resources in future planning for sustainable utilization of water resources.     

CRAE模型在新疆和田绿洲的适用性分析

新疆和田绿洲降水较少和气候干旱,蒸散发是区域内水分消耗的主要途径,合理估算蒸散发量可为绿洲地区水资源的合理配置等提供依据。利用和田站2006-2014年的气象资料以及2006-2014年的水文资料,运用CRAE模型和水量平衡法计算和田绿洲实际蒸散发量,验证CRAE模型在该地区的适用性。结果表明:模型模拟结果平水年和多年平均实际蒸散发量结果较好,枯水年和丰水年的结果误差较大;模型计算的蒸发能力ET_p与P-M公式和Hargreaves公式相比结果更为合理;利用水量平衡系数、总量平衡系数和相关系数对计算结果进行评价,误差均在合理范围内。CRAE模型在和田绿洲地区应用效果较好,可用于估算该地区多年实际蒸散发量。     

鲁北地区秸杆覆盖对冬小麦需水量、作物系数及水分利用效率的影响

作物系数和需水量是制定作物灌溉制度和计算区域水资源平衡的重要参数,不同气候和不同栽培条件下作物系数和需水量会发生变化。通过大田试验,以Penman-Monteith公式计算小麦播种~成熟期间参照作物蒸散量,并利用农田水量平衡方程及土壤水分胁迫系数计算作物实际蒸发蒸散量,进而对小麦秸杆覆盖和露地栽培条件下各生育阶段的作物系数进行计算。结果表明,鲁北地区小麦秸杆覆盖栽培比露地栽培生育期内作物需水量减少40.3 mm,作物系数降低9.1%,水分利用效率增加18.0%。冬小麦产量提高10%左右。     

Water Resources Development and Management A Challenging Task for Botswana

Abstract

Since Botswana is part of drought prone region of Southern Africa due to its semi-arid climate, conservation and careful management of the water resources is a matter of necessity and great importance. Hence, the focus on water resources management and, in particular, integrated management has become critical over the past decade. This paper addresses the problem of water resources development with a particular reference to Botswana, which is a semi-desert region. The vagaries of climate, unpredictable, patchy rainfall, and even more erratic run-off events all make hydrological modeling difficult. High rates of evaporation and evapotranspiration losses present an additional challenge to water resources planners. Lack of good dam sites is another problem in Botswana's ancient, flat, and eroded landscape. This paper describes the present and future water demands of this country and a suggestion is made to improve the situation of water shortage. The Botswana National Master Plan has been developed to meet the challenge. The aim is to integrate the expanding water supply system of eastern Botswana, through a north-south carrier pipeline. A brief presentation and discussion of this system is given along with other challenges faced by the water resources planners, such as conjunctive use of the groundwater and surface water resources     

基于互补相关的乌江流域实际蒸散量分布式模拟

为了提高气候变化下估算乌江流域陆面实际蒸散量的精度,利用乌江流域气象和水文数据,在蒸散互补原理基础上建立用常规气象资料估算流域实际蒸散量的模型。模拟结果显示:该模型能将乌江流域多年平均实际蒸散量的相对误差控制在5%以内;在充分考虑地形起伏等下垫面不均匀的条件下,将估算模型中各分量的分布式模拟结果与估算模型耦合,实现了乌江流域实际蒸散量的分布式模拟;该模型更加精细地表现了流域实际蒸散量的空间变化情况,发现其在空间分布上呈显著的西高东低的分布趋势;在时间变化上,1961-2010年间乌江流域实际蒸散量在总体上表现为下降趋势,降幅为5.08 mm/(10 a),但是2000年以后实际蒸散量有较为明显的上升趋势;日照时数及相对湿度的上升是造成实际蒸散量产生以上变化的主要原因。研究结果可为水资源评价、农业气候区划制定等提供参考。     

黏弹性人工边界地震动输入方法及实现

本文对实现黏弹性边界的常用方法进行了总结,对相应于黏弹性边界的地震动输入公式进行了详细推导,把自由场应力的求解也转化为自由场速度的求解,简化了地震动输入公式,并给出了地震动输入的简化方法。基于ABAQUS软件,进行算例分析并和理论解进行对比,验证了各种黏弹性边界实现方式及本文地震动输入方法的合理性和正确性。最后,对大朝山重力坝典型挡水坝段进行地震响应分析,通过施加黏弹性边界并输入相应地震动,评价了无限地基辐射阻尼的影响,并与无质量地基模型的计算结果进行了比较。结果表明,考虑辐射阻尼效应后坝体地震响应明显降低,故在实际工程抗震分析时对其影响应予以适当考虑。     

气候变化下黄河流域未来水资源趋势分析

开展流域水资源变化趋势研究是水资源规划和开发利用的基础工作。基于RCPs（Representative Concentration Pathways）排放情景下7个全球气候模式的气候情景资料,分析了黄河流域未来气温及降水的变化趋势;采用RCCC-WBM模型动态模拟了黄河流域未来水资源情势。结果表明:黄河流域在未来30年（2021—2050年）气温将持续显著升高（线性升率为0.24～0.35 ℃/（10 a））;与基准期（1961—1990年）相比,流域降水总体可能增多,但对降水变化预估的不确定性较大;受气候变化影响,黄河流域未来水资源量较基准期的可能会略微偏少,流域水资源供需矛盾可能进一步加剧;不确定性及其带来的评估风险是目前及未来气候变化影响及水资源评估中需要加强研究的重要内容。