Effects of member and leader expectations on group outcome.

Studied the effects of members' and leaders' expectations on group members' self-actualization and self-esteem gain. Changes in self-actualization and self-esteem between experimental groups and a no-treatment comparison group also were assessed. 42 undergraduates participated twice weekly as members of a growth group for 25 sessions, and 31 undergraduates served as a no-treatment group. Leaders were 6 graduate students in counseling psychology. A 3?×?2 factorial design with a single control group was utilized. Members and leaders were assigned randomly to groups on the basis of an expectation scale, with 3 types of member groups (high, moderate, low) being facilitated by high- and low-expectation leaders. Varying the level of group expectations did not significantly affect self-actualization gain but did affect self-esteem change. Significant differences were found also between the experimental and control groups on the dependent variables. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-actualization level as a predictor of practicum supervision effectiveness.

20 counseling students at high and low levels of self-actualization (as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory) were randomly assigned to high or low self-actualizing supervisors to assess the effects of such assignment on change in self-actualization during the course of the beginning practicum semester. A control group of 5 counseling students not enrolled in the practicum were also pre- and posttested to assess their change in self-actualization during the same semester. It was assumed that counselor growth in self-actualization would be affected by the level of self-actualization of the supervisor. Results do not support this assumption. Counseling students tended to gain in self-actualization whether or not they were enrolled in a practicum and regardless of the level of self-actualization of the supervisors to whom they were assigned. Evidence linking counseling effectiveness and self-actualization is advanced; speculation about supervision effectiveness and self-actualization requires further testing. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study on the early development of leader-member exchanges.

Investigated the 1st 6 mo that 166 newly hired employees and their immediate supervisors worked together. Expectations, perceived similarity, liking, demographic similarity, and performance were examined as determinants of leader–member exchanges (LMXs). Leader and member expectations of each other assessed in the 1st 5 days in the life of the dyad predicted LMXs at 2 wks and at 6 wks following the 1st day of the dyads' existence. Member expectations of leaders also predicted LMXs at 6 mo. Following nearly the same pattern, perceived similarity and liking from both the leaders' and members' perspectives predicted LMXs at most time periods. Demographic similarity between leaders and members had no significant effects on LMX development, and subordinate performance ratings were relatively less important in predicting LMX than were affective variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of participatory and supervisory leadership on group creativity.

This study compares the creativity of 4-man groups under 2 conditions of leadership. The Ss were 90 freshmen and sophomore Navy ROTC midshipmen and 30 NROTC seniors who served as group leaders. In 15 of the groups, the leaders acted as chairmen who directed the group discussions and contributed to the task solution. In the other 15 groups, leaders acted in a supervisory capacity: they directed and guided group discussion and they were allowed to encourage members or to reject ideas, but the leaders were prohibited from contributing to the solution of the task. Groups having participatory leaders were generally superior in quantity of output while groups under supervisory leaders were superior in the quality of the product. Although leaders in the 2 conditions did not differ in their satisfaction with the group product, the participatory leaders were more satisfied with their own individual contribution to the task. The leadership styles did not produce differences in the members' esteem for the leader or in the members' morale and satisfaction with the task. Differences were found in the influence of the leader intelligence and ability scores on group creativity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of social and emotional communication skills in leader emergence and effectiveness.

Three studies explored the role that basic social/communication skills play in leader emergence and effectiveness. In Study 1, 218 undergraduate students were administered self-report measures of social/communication skills and extraversion, worked in small groups on a problem-solving task, and elected leaders at task midpoint. Coders measured leaders' verbal communication. Groups elected leaders who spoke most and were extraverted but were not more socially skilled. In Study 2, leaders were selected on the basis of their possession of communication skills and led small groups in 2 tasks. More skilled communicators were rated as more effective leaders, but they did not lead more productive groups. Study 3 examined fire service leaders. Social skills were related to satisfaction with the leader but related to leader performance only for higher level leaders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of psychoanalytic and a client-centered group treatment model on measures of anxiety and self-actualization.

30 volunteer graduate counseling students were randomly assigned by sex to 1 of 4 treatment groups involved in either a psychoanalytic or a client-centered group treatment model. One male and 1 female group leader led 1 group in each model. All groups met for 2 4.5-hr sessions on consecutive Saturdays or Sundays. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was administered toward the end of the 1st day. The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was used to measure self-actualization before, immediately after, and 1 mo following treatment. Data were analyzed on 19 Ss who completed both days of treatment. Significant differences were found between treatment models in levels of group anxiety and in gains in self-actualization. The psychoanalytic groups reported higher anxiety, and the client-centered groups showed greater initial gains on the POI and maintained these gains at follow-up. Sex of leader was not a major source of difference between group treatment models. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Projection in group counseling: The relationship between members' interpersonal problems and their perception of the group leader.

Explored projection in group counseling by examining the relationship between the group members' interpersonal problems and their perception of the group leader. Before participation, 118 personal-growth group members filled out the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems by L. M. Horowitz et al (see record 1989-10599-001) and after each session they filled out the Trainer Behavior Scale (L. Bolman, 1971). A latent variable analysis revealed that during the 1st 10 group sessions, overly dominant group members perceived the group leaders as more dominant and overly cold group members perceived the group leaders as less affiliative. There was less relationship between group members' interpersonal problems and ratings for group leaders over time. Implications of these results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of various group approaches on self-actualization of graduate counseling students.

40 graduate counseling students were randomly assigned by sex to a marathon group (2 8-hr sessions), a shorter session group (8 2-hr sessions), a combination of marathon and shorter session group (1 8-hr and 4 2-hr sessions), and a control group to determine the impact of growth groups on the self-actualization of participants. The Personal Orientation Inventory, which was administered to all Ss before and after the group experience, indicated some significant positive movement for treatment groups. However, no single approach was found to be significantly more effective than the others. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Contagious Leader: Impact of the Leader's Mood on the Mood of Group Members, Group Affective Tone, and Group Processes.

The present study examined the effects of leaders' mood on (a) the mood of individual group members, (b) the affective tone of groups, and (c) 3 group processes: coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy. On the basis of a mood contagion model, the authors found that when leaders were in a positive mood, in comparison to a negative mood, (a) individual group members experienced more positive and less negative mood, and (b) groups had a more positive and a less negative affective tone. The authors also found that groups with leaders in a positive mood exhibited more coordination and expended less effort than did groups with leaders in a negative mood. Applied implications of the results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of systematic physical fitness training combined with counseling on the self-concept of college students.

Three groups of 40 college students were each given different treatments in an experiment designed to investigate the effect of systematic physical fitness training combined with counseling on measured self-concept. One experimental group received a fitness program consisting of flexibility training and systematic distance running; a 2nd group received the same physical training plus 1 hr/wk of group counseling designed to reinforce progress made in the fitness program; and a 3rd group (control) received no physical fitness training or counseling. After a 10-wk program, the group receiving fitness training and running made a significant gain in self-concept as measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The Ss were divided into low and high self-concept groups for statistical analysis. It was found that the students who received fitness training and counseling and had low self-concepts on the pretest measure made significant positive changes in self-concept. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leader behavior and therapeutic gain: An application of situational leadership theory.

Theoretical analyses of leadership (e.g., situational leadership theory; P. Hersey & K. H. Blanchard, 1977) argue that leaders shift their emphasis from task to relationship orientation as groups develop. To test these theories, group leaders' conditionality (task orientation) and empathy (relationship orientation) were assessed over a group's existence. As hypothesized, task orientation during the first 5 sessions and relationship orientation during the last 5 sessions accounted for 25% of the variance in group member adjustment. Neither early ratings of leader relationship orientation nor late ratings of leader task orientation were related to member adjustment. In addition, the group leaders' relative level of task or relationship orientation remained consistent across time. These findings lend support to situational leadership theory and suggest ways to enhance therapeutic gain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-actualization in a marathon growth group: Do the strong get stronger?

Examined the effects of a weekend marathon on the level of self-actualization of 20 male and 8 female college students 1 and 4 wks after their group experience. The relationship between ego strength and extent of change in self-actualization during a marathon was also studied. Comparison of pre- and posttest scores on the Personal Orientation Inventory and Barron Ego-Strength scale indicate that, in general, the group experience did increase self-actualization and the effects persisted through the 4th wk afterward. The possibility of a sleeper effect is discussed, and hypotheses are offered regarding conditions necessary for such groups to be effective. Ss' initial level of ego strength was unrelated to changes in self-actualization. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Communication restraints, group flexibility, and group confidence.

"This study was designed to explore the relationship between selected group structure variables and the group's ability to adjust to the requirements of a new situation (group flexibility) and the group members' expressed confidence in the ability of the group to succeed in a problem-solving situation." About 1000 men in 96 aircrews did a group task (8-item intelligence exam). Leaders in flexible groups scored low on the F scale and high on conformity. Greater confidence was expressed by members of high attraction groups and groups whose leaders tended to conform to the group members' opinions. "… groups with more open communication systems (group with fewer communication restraints) are more flexible and more confident." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intergroup discrimination and self-esteem in the minimal group paradigm.

Tested the hypothesis that intergroup discrimination (IGD) in the minimal group paradigm is related to self-esteem. According to social identity theory, IGD is a strategy for achieving self-esteem via social competition aimed at increasing the positive distinctiveness of one's own group. However, other elements of the procedure, such as categorization into groups or the opportunity to engage in a meaningful experimental task irrespective of its value for social competition, might also affect self-esteem. 135 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 8 concurrent experimental conditions. A 2-way MANOVA on the core design produced a significant interaction effect, whereby categorized Ss who had the opportunity to discriminate between groups and noncategorized Ss who did not discriminate showed higher self-esteem than did both categorized Ss who could not engage in discrimination and noncategorized Ss who could discriminate. Results support social identity theory and suggest that social categorization by itself may constitute a threat to self-esteem that can be resolved via social competition. Results from the supplementary conditions support the conclusion that it is IGD, and not merely the completion of an experimental task, that redeems self-esteem. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor gender, type of problem, and expectations about counseling.

100 male and 100 female college students were assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions—female counseling psychologist (CP)/career or vocational concern (CVC); male CP/CVC; female CP/person concern (PC); or male CP/PC—and responded to an expectations-about-counseling questionnaire that included sex of CP and type of problem. Results of a MANOVA revealed a significant main effect for S Gender; no other main effects were found. Females had significantly higher expectations for the client attitudes/behaviors of motivation, openness, and responsibility and for the CP attitudes of acceptance, confrontation, and genuineness. Females also expected more attractive and trustworthy CPs than did males, expected more immediacy in the counseling process, and had a more positive outcome expectancy. Males expected CPs to be more directive and self-disclosing than did females. The 2 groups did not differ in their expectations for CP empathy, expertness, and concreteness. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social cognitive variables in the prediction of client motivation and attrition.

Applied A. Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the prediction of client motivation and attrition from counseling. 139 university counseling center clients completed a measure of self-efficacy regarding their ability to negotiate counseling tasks, along with measures of counseling-related outcome expectations, perceived motivation, problem distress level, state anxiety, and self-esteem. Results indicated that (1) self-efficacy and outcome expectations each explained unique variation in motivation, beyond client and counselor background variables; (2) self-efficacy and motivation each contributed to the prediction of client return status after an intake interview; and (3) self-efficacy did not relate to global self-esteem or to state anxiety at the intake session. These results suggest that social cognitive theory may help illuminate the process whereby clients commit to counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes, self-esteem, and learning in formal and informal schools.

Changes in expectations, self-esteem, and learning transfer over a 6-mo period were assessed with questionnaire data obtained from 151 6th graders in 3 formal schools and 68 6th graders in 3 informal schools. Informal school students showed more positive attitudes toward school and teachers and greater transfer of learning to nonschool settings than did formal school students. No differences were found for academic expectations, self-esteem, or performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-presentations of small group leaders: Effects of role requirements and leadership orientation.

Conducted 2 experiments with 168 undergraduates to examine the self-presentations of task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders in response to situational pressures to adopt a task-oriented or interpersonal leadership style. Leaders of ad hoc groups were led to believe that either a task-oriented or relationship-oriented approach would be most effective in facilitating their group's performance, and the leaders' self-presentations to other group members were assessed. In both studies, leaders conveyed images of themselves to the group that were consistent with the type of leader they believed was needed for maximal effectiveness. In Exp I (80 Ss), this effect was partially qualified by Ss' leadership styles (as assessed by the Least Preferred Coworker Scale) and by S sex. Exp II (88 Ss) explored the possible mediating effects of leaders' self-confidence in their task vs relationship abilities on their self-presentations, but no effects of self-confidence were obtained. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual and group perceptions of therapeutic factors and session evaluation: An actor–partner interdependence analysis.

The relationship between a group member's and other group members' perceptions of therapeutic factors and session evaluation were examined using Kenny, Mannetti, Pierro, Livi, and Kashy's (2002) model. In addition, I examined the relative variance in therapeutic factors as a function of sessions, group members, and groups. Thirty-six growth-group participants participating in six 28-session growth groups filled out critical incident (CI) forms and session evaluations. CIs were rated on 10 therapeutic factors dimensions derived from Bloch, Reibstein, Crouch, Holroyd, and Themen (1979). On average, 95% of the variance in the therapeutic factors was at the session level, 4% of the variance was at the person level, and 1% of the variance was at the group level. Contrary to the hypotheses, individual's perception of therapeutic factors was not significantly related to session depth or smoothness. Contrary to the hypothesis, other group members' perceptions of therapeutic factors were not significantly related to session depth, although there was a trend (p = .06). As hypothesized, other group members' perceptions of therapeutic factors were significantly related to session smoothness. The findings support Yalom and Leszcz's (2005) contention that the group leaders' primary function is to create a therapeutically effective group culture and not to focus on individual group member change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)