Status and independence as variables in microcounseling training of adolescents.

Studied 104 high school sophomores aspiring to be peer counselors to determine whether trainees, blocked on the variable of dependency-independency, would learn the helping skill of open-ended comments more effectively from microcounseling training in which no special status was attributed to the model. The interaction of model status and trainee dependency-independency and its effect on training outcome was also examined. Results from a posttest-only design using a 2 * 2 analysis of variance show that adolescent trainees exposed to a high-status model employed the target counseling skill at a significantly higher level than trainees whose model's status was not indicated. Independent trainees employed the target skill at a significantly higher level than dependent trainees, contrary to expectation. No significant interaction effect was found. Results suggest applicability of the microcounseling paradigm for training adolescents in a helping skill, but for maximum effect it must be used differentially. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Application of supervised and nonsupervised microcounseling paradigms in the training of paraprofessionals.

Studied the effect of supervision on the learning of basic clinical interviewing skills within the microcounseling format. Ss were 12 19-33 yr old paraprofessional counselors (4 women and 8 men) employed in the drug research center of a midwestern psychiatric institute. Each S was assigned randomly to either a supervised or a nonsupervised microcounseling training condition. Trained coders categorized 32 trainee utterances from each S's pre- and posttraining videotaped interviews as 1 or more of the microcounseling skills, 1 or more of the opposite skills, or a miscellaneous skill. Analysis revealed only 1 significant effect indicating more frequent use of microcounseling than opposite skills. No significant differences were found between training conditions or across time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Style differences of beginning supervisors: An interactional analysis.

An interactional analysis system, A. Blumberg's (1970) system for analyzing supervisor–teacher interaction (BIA), adopted from research in teacher education, was used to characterize beginning supervisory style. Two dimensions were considered: (a) the amount of variance in supervisory interaction behaviors in a group of beginning supervisors and (b) the stability of interactional behavior of individuals across 2 interviews, each with 2 trainees. 24 supervision interviews, each with 2 trainees from each of 12 beginning doctoral students, were videotaped and later analyzed with the BIA. A repeated measures 2-way ANOVA was used to analyze the BIA scores. Results indicate that the interview content differed significantly between supervisors on 7 of the 11 BIA variables and that individuals differed significantly across 2 interviews on 3 of the variables. It is concluded that beginning supervisors have individual predilections for supervisory behaviors that are stable across interviews with different trainees. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching the mentally retarded job interviewing skills.

Examined the most effective usage of videotape in job interview skill training for 24 mentally retarded young adults utilizing the microcounseling model of instruction. Seven (e.g., open- and closed-ended questions and reflection of content) skill areas were modeled to 3 experimental groups for 6 sessions where the method of videotape utilization differed for each group. Data reveal that the microcounseling model is most effective with the 2 skill areas of eye contact and body posture regardless of the method of videotape utilization. Significant differences occurred in both of these skill areas after modeling Session 2 and remained significant throughout the study. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microcounseling versus human relations training: Relative effectiveness with undergraduate trainees.

Randomly assigned 24 undergraduates to 1 of 2 counselor training systems. 12 human relations training Ss received training in R. R. Carkhuff's 7 core counselor conditions. 12 microcounseling Ss were trained in the use of attending behavior, minimal activity responses, verbal following behavior, open inquiry, and reflection of feeling. Pre- and posttraining interviews with standard clients were audiotaped for each S. Trainees were assessed on empathy and on 3 categories of counselor communication derived from the microcounseling training content. Compared to no-training control groups, all experimental Ss significantly improved on both sets of training criteria. However, the microcounseling Ss gained significantly more on empathy than did the human relations training Ss. Differences in the instructional techniques of the 2 systems are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Application of supervised and nonsupervised microcounseling paradigms in the training of registered and licensed practical nurses.

Studied the effect of supervision on the learning of interviewing skills within the microcounseling format, using 18 female registered and licensed practical nurses at the psychiatric ward of a midwestern Veterans Administration hospital. Ss were randomly assigned to a supervised, nonsupervised, or no-training control condition. Trained coders categorized 32 trainee utterances from pretraining and posttraining videotaped interviews as one or more microcounseling skills, opposite skills, or a miscellaneous skill. Analyses revealed a significant main effect indicating significant improvement in only the supervised group's combined use of opposite and microcounseling skills. A significant double interaction demonstrated significantly higher Ideal Therapeutic Relationship Scale ratings as a function of training condition and time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An evaluation of microcounseling as an interviewer training tool.

Assigned 24 male 2nd-yr medical students to 1 of 2 interviewing training groups. The 12 microcounseling Ss received training in the use of attending behavior, open-ended questions, minimal activity responses, paraphrases, reflections of feeling, and summarization through the use of the microcounseling paradigm. The 12 comparison Ss received equivalent interview training. Pretraining and posttraining interviews with real patients were videotaped for each S. Data analysis reveals that both groups of Ss became better interviewers, but those receiving microcounseling training improved more than the comparison Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incremental effects of modeling and performance feedback in teaching decision-making counseling.

In a replicated study involving 54 randomly assigned counselor trainees, 3 cumulative methods of teaching decision-making counseling were compared (a traditional method, a method incorporating a filmed instructional model, and a method featuring several microcounseling components). In both the original study and in the replication the latter method was found to be significantly more effective than either of the former methods in promoting student acquisition of decision-making counseling skills. Incorporation of a filmed instructional model did not significantly improve the traditional method. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactional structure of the supervision interview.

Five supervisors audiotaped Sessions 3, 6, and 9 of their supervision interviews with each of their assigned trainees (N?=?19). A 20-min segment of each of the resulting interviews was coded by trained raters using an adapted version of A. Blumberg's (1970) system for analyzing supervisor–teacher interaction. A quadratic assignment paradigm was used to determine whether the probability that particular behaviors would be emitted by either the supervisor or the trainee, given the behavior emitted previously by the other member of the dyad, was greater or less than the unconditional probability of these particular behaviors being emitted. Results indicate that certain repetitive patterns of verbal behavior occurred in the supervisory interview and that a sequential analysis can effectively describe these interactions. The verbal coding scheme used appeared conceptually relevant to the supervision process. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An initial evaluation of a clinical psychology practicum training program.

Assessed 2 groups of clinical psychology graduate student trainees (N?=?26) either 3 or 4 times over the 1st 2 yrs of training. Skills measured included the ability to both communicate and discriminate empathic responses. Faculty supervisory ratings of Ss and internship supervisory ratings were obtained. For comparison purposes, data were gathered from 9 graduate trainees who did not undergo systematic skills training. Results indicate that both experimental training groups (receiving skill training) improved in their ability to produce empathic responses as compared with the control group. The training group that received the more intense and experiential training showed greater improvement in ability to discriminate facilitative responses. Faculty ratings during practicum did not reveal improvement; however, internship supervisory ratings did reflect trainee improvement. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes and behavior in counseling skill development.

To examine the association between attitudes and skill performance under laboratory conditions, 37 undergraduates received brief training in 2 counseling skills (reflection of feeling and interpretation) and then conducted interviews with coached clients. Ss with positive attitudes toward using reflection of feeling produced significantly higher quality reflective responses than did those with negative attitudes toward the use of this skill. By contrast, no significant association between attitudes toward interpretive responses and interpretation quality was found. In addition, Ss were able to use reflective responses when instructed, whereas they were less able to respond to instructions about the timing of interpretive responses. Results suggest that when trainees are relatively facile in the use of a skill, quality is associated with attitudes, whereas when facility is less, the association is attenuated. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and validation of the Counselor Response Questionnaire.

A 15-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire measuring effectiveness in the selection of appropriate counselor responses to client statements was developed from a microcounseling orientation. The Counselor Response Questionnaire (CRQ) is intended primarily for measuring beginning counseling skills. The sample included 157 undergraduates in an introductory psychology course, 19 advanced undergraduates and graduate psychology majors with some training in counseling skills, 80 paraprofessional drug-abuse counselors, and 15 doctoral-level counselors and clinical psychologists. The internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and factor structure of the CRQ are discussed, and the discriminant validity of the CRQ is supported by results from a discriminant analysis. Additional evidence of validity is given by the correlation of scores on the CRQ with rankings of paraprofessional counselor trainees on counseling effectiveness and with ratings of responses in a simulated counseling interview. The overall results indicate that the CRQ is a valid and efficient measure of beginning counseling skills. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using client feedback in psychotherapy training: An analysis of its influence on supervision and counselor self-efficacy.

Tracking client outcome and the therapeutic relationship across treatment (i.e., client feedback) has become a recommended practice for clinicians. This study investigated whether the utility of this practice would extend to trainees if the data gained from clients was provided to their supervisor for use within supervision. Trainees (N = 28) were assigned to a continuous feedback condition or no-feedback condition for 1 academic year. Results indicated that trainees in both conditions demonstrated better client outcomes at the end of their practicum training than at the beginning, but those in the feedback condition improved more. However, those in the feedback condition did not rate the supervisory alliance or satisfaction with the supervision process differently. The relationship between counselor self-efficacy and outcome was stronger for trainees in the feedback condition than for those in the no-feedback condition, perhaps indicating that feedback may facilitate a more accurate assessment of one’s skills. Implications of how counseling self-efficacy, the supervisory alliance, and satisfaction with supervision are related to effective supervision are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of supervisor and trainee gender to in-session verbal behavior and ratings of trainee skills.

This study of 44 supervision dyads investigated the effects of supervisor and trainee gender on the verbal interactions of participants and on their perceptions of trainee skill levels. Supervisor and trainee utterances were coded as being relationship or task focused. Male supervisors paired with male trainees engaged in more task-oriented discourse than did other dyad configurations. In other analyses, gender did not affect which party exerted more effect on the structure of the interactions. Finally, no significant differences were found in how male and female trainees rated their own skill levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of modeling, rehearsal, feedback, and remediation on acquisition of a counseling strategy.

Assessed the effects of 4 primary components of the microcounseling training model on the acquisition of a counseling strategy. The 4 training components investigated were (a) written and video models, (b) role-play practice, (c) peer feedback, and (d) role-play remediation practice. 40 beginning graduate students in counseling were assigned randomly to the following 4 treatment conditions: modeling; modeling and practice; modeling, practice, and feedback; and modeling, practice, feedback, and remediation. Written pretest, posttest, and retention test measures and posttest and retention test role-play interview measures were obtained of the dependent variable—the developing goals counseling strategy. Results show that, on the written measures, the performance of all 4 groups increased significantly from pre- to posttest and from pretest to retention test. A 1-way ANOVA revealed that all groups performed equally well on the posttest role-play interview. A repeated measures ANOVA on the role-play posttest and retention interviews indicated no significant differences between treatment groups or across trials. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An assessment of the gap between counseling theory and practice.

Used microcounseling procedures to assess differences between intended counseling behavior and actual practice among 43 graduate students in counselor education. A paradigm developed by D. H. Frey was used to divide counseling behavior into 4 types: rational-insight counseling, affective-insight counseling, affective-action counseling, and rational-action counseling. Ss met with 1 of 2 distinctly different coached clients in a 4-min videotaped microcounseling interview in which both self- and peer ratings were obtained. No significant differences were found between intended and actual behavior as perceived by the counselors themselves, but their intended behavior was significantly different from peer perceptions of interview behavior. Client type had no effect. Results indicate that beginning counselors have a need to see their counseling as being theoretically consistent, even when peer ratings indicate a gap between the beginning theoretical stance and actual practice. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of trainee expectancies and specific instructions on counselling skill acquisition.

Examined the acquisition of counseling skill by 31 inexperienced undergraduate counselor trainees as a function of (1) brief, specific instructions on how to counsel and (2) Ss' pretraining expectancies pertaining to nondirective vs directive counseling style. The Reisman Direction-Unconscious Motivation Scale was used to identify Ss of high vs low directiveness expectancy, and Ss of these 2 groups were randomly assigned to training or control conditions. The training group showed significant training gains on 2 microcounseling criteria, while the directiveness-expectancy variable had no significant effect. Findings vis-à-vis the brief instructions illustrate that a significant training gain can be induced simply by alerting trainees to the evaluative criteria. It is concluded that such instructions could be used both as highly efficient means of instituting initial counseling skill in paraprofessional workers and as an apt control in assessing the effect of relatively more extensive counselor training programs. (French abstract) (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological education: A skill-oriented approach.

Tested the hypothesis that a 3-wk program based on a microcounseling paradigm would facilitate the acquisition of 3 specific problem-solving skills: (a) problem definition, (b) generation of alternatives, and (c) goal selection. 30 6th graders were randomly assigned either to a training group, to a group exposed to films and discussions related to each problem-solving skill, or to a no-treatment control group. Each group was tested immediately after training and 2 wks later. Results indicate that the microtraining group generated more alternatives than the other groups. Over time, all groups improved their problem-definition skills, while their ability to select appropriate goals decreased. Questions concerning the measures, issues in psychological education, and implications for program development are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expert modeling, self-observation using videotape, and acquisition of basic therapy skills.

Self-observation and observation of an experienced therapist were evaluated as aids in learning listening skills. 48 female college students interviewed mock clients before and after training. Training groups observed a videotape of an experienced therapist lecturing about listening skills, an experienced therapist modeling listening skills, a novice therapist attempting to use listening skills, or the S's own pretraining interview. All groups' skills improved significantly. Ss completed measures regarding feelings during interviews and about training. Trends indicated that Ss observing themselves improved least on all measures of both skill and feelings, and yet expressed most positive reaction to their training. Ss observing the experienced model improved most of all the groups in use of skills. Results raise questions about the usefulness of videotaping and support greater use of expert modeling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of verbal behavior and judgments of satisfaction in the supervision interview.

Nine staff supervisors were asked to audiotape Sessions 3, 6, and 9 of their regular weekly 1-hr supervision sessions with each of their counselor trainees (n?=?30). At the conclusion of each interview, supervisors and trainees completed instruments assessing their judgment of satisfaction with the supervisory session. Interactional analysis was used to code the interviews, and sequential analysis was employed to characterize interactional patterns. Three areas of satisfaction were assessed: supervisor's (or trainee's) evaluation of the (a) other, (b) self, and (c) level of comfort in the interview. Multiple regression was used to identify patterns of verbal behavior that predicted satisfaction in the 3 instances. Results support the claim that certain verbal behaviors are related to particular judgments made by participants in the interview; further, they indicate that some types of judgments are better predicted by interview variables than others. Findings reflect some generally held beliefs about dyadic communication and challenge some basic assumptions concerning the use of supportive communication in the supervision interview. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)