Inductive hot-pressing of titanium and titanium alloy powders

Inductive hot-pressing is a field-assisted sintering process (FAST) in which an electrical current is used to enhance the densification of the powder. Inductive hot-pressing could be employed to enable titanium powder to reach a higher density in less time than the pressing and sintering process. In this study, titanium and titanium alloy powders with different features were processed by means of inductive hot-pressing. The influence of processing temperature on density, microstructure, quantity of interstitial elements and hardness was investigated. Generally, practically fully dense materials were obtained without any carbon pick-up, even if the materials were in contact with the graphite matrix during processing. Nevertheless, there was an increment of the nitrogen content and some oxygen pick-up, especially for the powders with smaller particle size. Hardness is not significantly affected by the pressing temperature, but it strongly depends on the amount of interstitials.     

Dual phase titanium alloy hot forging process design:experiments and numerical modeling

Titanium alloys are considered desirable materials when both good mechanical properties and weight reduction are required at the same time.This class of materials is widely used in those fields(aeronautics,aerospace) in which common steels and light-weight materials,e.g.,aluminum alloys,are not able to satisfy all operative service conditions.During the last decade,forging of titanium alloys has attracted greater attention from both industrial and scientific/academic researchers because of their potential in providing a near net shaped part with minimal need for machining.In this paper,a numerical model of the forging sequences for a Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy aerospace component is presented.The model was tested and validated against experimental forgings.The model is then applied to predict loads final microstructure and defects of an aeronautical component.In addition to metal flow and die stresses,microstructural transformations(α and β phases) are considered for the determination of proper process parameters.It is found that transformation from α/β to β phase during forging and reverse transformations in post-forge cooling needs to be considered in the computational model for reasonable prediction of forging loads and product properties.     

Microwave processing of titanium and titanium alloys for structural,biomedical and shape memory applications: Current status and challenges

Microwave (MW) radiation has attracted increasing attention in the fabrication and/or synthesis of titanium (Ti) and Ti alloys from powder since 1999 when the first study was reported by Gedevanishvili et al. This article provides a comprehensive review of MW processing of Ti and Ti alloys. It begins by discussing the critical technical issues associated with MW processing of Ti powder, including the heating response of Ti powder to MW radiation, temperature measurement by infrared pyrometry and calibration, and interstitial absorption and control. This is followed by a detailed review of the sintering of a range of powder metallurgy (PM) Ti and Ti alloys for structural, biomedical, and shape memory applications. As a new development in the field, MW heating and sintering of titanium hydride (TiH₂) powder for the fabrication of PM Ti are discussed in terms of the heating response, interstitial contamination, microstructure, and tensile properties of the as-sintered Ti. The challenges that face MW sintering of PM Ti from either Ti powder or TiH₂ powder are reviewed, and solutions are proposed. Based on the heating and isothermal sintering characteristics by MW radiation, recommendations are made for the applications of MW processing of Ti and Ti alloys.     

快速凝固/粉末冶金高硅铝合金微观组织及拉伸性能

采用快速凝固／粉末冶金法制备Al-17Si-6Fe-4.5Cu-0.5Mg合金,并进行T6处理。利用现代测试手段对挤压态及T6处理态合金微观组织及拉伸性能进行研究。结果表明：采用这种工艺可使合金组织中第二相得到显著细化,经T6处理后第二相有粗化趋势,同时也有新相沉淀析出;合金拉伸性能主要表现在高温、低塑性及良好耐热性。     

Fabrication of low-cost Ti-1Al-8V-5Fe by powder metallurgy with TiH2 and FeV80 alloy

The low-cost Ti-1Al-8V-5Fe (Ti-185) alloy with a high strength is prepared by cold-compaction-and-sintering powder metallurgy process with low-cost titanium hydride (TiH₂) powders and FeV₈₀ master alloy powders. The use of simple technique process and cheap alloying elements can lead to the cost reduction for titanium alloys. The thermal decomposition of TiH₂-1Al-8V-5Fe is analyzed by thermal gravimetric analyses and differential scanning calorimetry simultaneous thermal analyzer. The shrinkage behavior of TiH₂-1Al-8V-5Fe during the sintering process is employed by the high-sensitivity dilatometer system. The microstructure of sintered Ti-185 consists of β-phase and lamellar α-phase. The results show that the sintered Ti-185 alloys have the relative density of 97.8%, homogeneous composition, and fine grains. The yield strength and the hardness are 1461?MPa and 40.1?±?1.0 HRC (unit of Rockwell hardness), which are better than that of as-cast Ti-185.     

Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys by Electron Beam Melting: A Review

Electron beam melting (EBM), as one of metal additive manufacturing technologies, is considered to be an innovative industrial production technology. Based on the layer‐wise manufacturing technique, as‐produced parts can be fabricated on a powder bed using the 3D computational design method. Because the melting process takes place in a vacuum environment, EBM technology can produce parts with higher densities compared to selective laser melting (SLM), particularly when titanium alloy is used. The ability to produce higher quality parts using EBM technology is making EBM more competitive. After briefly introducing the EBM process and the processing factors involved, this paper reviews recent progress in the processing, microstructure, and properties of titanium alloys and their composites manufactured by EBM. The paper describes significant positive progress in EBM of all types of titanium in terms of solid bulk and porous structures including Ti–6Al–4V and Ti–24Nb–4Zr–8Sn, with a focus on manufacturing using EBM and the resultant unique microstructure and service properties (mechanical properties, fatigue behaviors, and corrosion resistance properties) of EBM‐produced titanium alloys.

     

钛合金塑性成形关键技术进展(英文)

综述了钛合金塑性成形关键技术的发展状况。重点介绍了成形与微观组织演化的研究与发展。在成形方面,主要讨论了省力成形技术在钛合金大型复杂构件成形中的应用,并给出了相关的实例,如钛合金构件的等温成形、连续/间断局部加载成形等;讨论了精确成形技术中的回弹控制与工艺优化等关键问题;在缺陷控制技术方面,主要讨论了如何控制裂纹出现及充填不满等问题;在微观组织演化方面,首先讨论了微观组织的演化机制,如织构与组织形态的演化;其次,讨论了微观组织演化的几种数值建模方法,如内变量法、晶体塑性理论及元胞自动机模型。最后,提出了钛合金构件塑性成形技术领域目前存在的问题与挑战。     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of titanium components fabricated by a new powder injection molding technique

A powder injection molding (PIM) binder system has been developed for reactive metals such as titanium that employs an aromatic compound as the primary component to facilitate easy binder removal and mitigate problems with carbon contamination. In the study presented here, we examined the densification behavior, microstructure, and mechanical properties of titanium specimens formed by this process using naphthalene as the principle binder constituent. In general, it was found that tensile strengths could be achieved comparable to wrought titanium in the PIM-formed specimens, but that maximum elongation was less than expected. Chemical and microstructural analyses indicate that this process does not add oxygen to the material,suggesting that the use of higher purity powder and further process optimization should lead to significant improvements in ductility.     

Gefüge und Bruch von Titanlegierungen

Structure and Fracture of Titanium Alloys Titanium alloys are characterized by low density, high strength and excellent corrosion resistance. Due to their complicated and costly manufacturing and processing, titanium alloys were applied only in the last four decades. Besides the chemical industry, aerospace industry is one of the most important users. The presentation deals with the variety of microstructure in some (α + β)-titanium alloys applied in the aerospace industry and shows, according to examples from practice, the problematic nature of thick structures having local different microstructure, and, as a consequence, different mechanical properties. The influence of microstructure on mechanical properties and on fracture morphology will be discussed with primarily the microfractographic aspects being emphasized.     

医用多孔金属的制备及其生物活化研究进展

医用多孔金属材料,特别是多孔钛及钛合金能够提供与人体骨组织相匹配的力学性能,并促进骨组织长入以提高其与骨的固定度,在人体硬组织修复与替换方面具有广泛的应用前景。重点围绕多孔钛及钛合金的制备方法及适用于其复杂孔隙结构的表面生物活化方法,综述了各种方法在多孔钛及钛合金上的应用现状。目前适用于多孔钛及钛合金制备的技术主要有粉末冶金法、钛纤维烧结法、自蔓延高温合成法、选区电子束熔化技术和选区激光熔化技术,适用于多孔钛及钛合金表面生物活化的技术主要有溶胶凝胶法、仿生矿化法、电化学沉积法和微弧氧化法。多孔钛及钛合金的力学相容性和表面生物活性需要同时满足临床要求,才能进一步扩大其在医学领域的应用范围。     

Microstructure and properties of a RS/PM Al-Fe-Co alloy

The extruded Al-8%Fe-2%Co RS/PM alloy, produced by gas atomization, exhibited UTS=460 MPa and 8% elongation at room temperature, and UTS=250 MPa at 300 °C. The properties are strongly influenced by the powder microstructure and the processing conditions used. The optimum mechanical properties can be obtained by the use of powder fraction with particle size <63 m. A temperature of about 400 °C proved to be the best compromise for degassing and extrusion in order to achieve a low hydrogen content without considerable dispersoid coarsening.     

Metal foaming by a powder metallurgy method: Production, properties and applications

 A method for fabricating metal foams based on the powder metallurgy process is presented. This foaming process allows for the production of complex-shaped foam parts, metal foam sandwich panels and foam filled hollow profiles. A range of alloys can be foamed using this method including aluminum, zinc, tin, lead and steel. The as-produced part has a closed-cell microstructure and a high fraction of porosity (typical range from 40–90% porosity). Selected mechanical properties of metal foams are evaluated, including the loading of foam samples with and without face skins and the axial crushing of tubular structures with foam reinforcement. Potential applications are discussed such as light-weight construction and energy absorption for both military and civilian uses. Received: 22 July 1998 / Accepted: 4 September 1998     

A review of advances in processing and metallurgy of titanium alloys

Abstract

Titanium and its alloys exhibit excellent mechanical properties, unrivalled corrosion resistance and outstanding biocompatibility; however, annual global titanium production is dwarfed by commodity metals. This is in part due to the current primary production method (Kroll process), which requires a complex and discontinuous reduction route in addition to several costly downstream processing steps to convert titanium sponge to usable product forms. Alternative extraction processes are reviewed in the present paper with emphasis on the electrochemical reduction routes, such as the Fray–Farthing–Chen (FFC) Cambridge process. Improvements in thermomechanical processing including the use of modelling are briefly examined. Alloy development is also discussed with particular regard to superelastic and shape memory alloys.     

THE TECHNOLOGY OF TITANIUM ALUMINIDES FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS

Titanium aluminide intermetatlics are of engineering interest due to an attractive combination of mechanical properties and density. This paper discusses the properties and processing of titanium aluminides, concentrating on near γ-TiAl compositions. Inherent structural and deformation characteristics are described. The relationship between microstructure and processing is examined with emphasis placed on powder metallurgical, HIP'ing and hot deformation processes. Mechanical properties attainable with near γ-TiAl alloys are presented and the effect of ternary elements examined.     

机械合金化和粉末冶金法制备Fe-Mn-Si基形状记忆合金的研究进展

铁基形状记忆合金由于价格低廉、强度高、加工性能好、可焊接等优点引起广泛重视。机械合金化(MA)和粉末冶金(PM)作为制备材料的新工艺,可以用来制备性能优越的形状记忆合金。本文详述了机械合金化和粉末冶金工艺在制备Fe-Mn-Si基形状记忆合金过程中对合金相变、组织与性能的影响,以及此类合金在新领域的应用。最后提出了现阶段在研究MA/PM工艺制备Fe-Mn-Si基SMA中有关工艺参数、相变机制以及回复应力和低温应力松弛所存在的问题。     

Low Heat Welding of Titanium Materials with a Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser

Titanium materials exhibit a property profile that is just as versatile as that of steel materials. Titanium materials therefore have outstanding properties, such as excellent resistance to corrosion and high strength values at low densities, which makes them ideal for use in the chemical industry and as structural materials in lightweight construction. Due to the high affinity of titanium to atmospheric gases at increased temperatures above 500 °C, titanium components have to be welded in a sophisticated process under inert shielding gas by TIG welding or by an electron beam in a vacuum. A novel innovative laser beam welding process using a pulsed laser with free pulse shaping will be presented here with which oxidation‐free titanium weld seams with excellent mechanical and technological properties can be produced. For this low heat welding process, the otherwise commonly used inert gas covering can be substituted with a shielding gas nozzle. The process‐specific low heat input and the resulting low energy input per unit length both have a positive effect on the microstructure and thus on the mechanical properties. This welding process offers both technological and economical advantages over the processes used up until now, particularly for the machining of complex components and for series production.     

Challenges in alloy design: Titanium for the aerospace industry

This review describes the principles governing the design of titanium alloys for engine and airframe applications in the aeronautical industry. The relationships between processing, microstructure and properties of the commonly used α + β titanium alloys are described in some detail. The ‘state of science’ is seen to be sufficiently advanced to enable the metallurgist to optimally design this class of alloys to meet specific requirements. The challenges to the alloy designer lie in increasing the temperature capability of titanium alloys, and in standardising processing techniques which will decrease the high manufacturing costs of components.     

Effect of Si3N4 Addition on the Mechanical Properties, Microstructures, and Wear Resistance of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy

In order to improve the wear resistance of Ti-6Al-4V, different amounts of Si3N4 powder were added into the alloy powder and sintered at 1250℃. Porous titanium alloy with higher wear resistance was successfully fabricated. At sintering temperature, reaction took place and a new hard phase of Ti5Si3 formed. The mechanical properties of the fabricated alloys with different amounts of Si3N4 addition were investigated. The hardness of Ti-6Al-4V, which is the index of wear resistance, was increased by the addition of Si3N4. Amounts of Si3N4 addition have very significant influences on hardness and compressive strength. In present study,titanium alloy with 5 wt pct Si3N4 addition has 62% microhardness and 45% overall bulk hardness increase,respectively. In contrast, it has a 16.4% strength reduction. Wear resistance was evaluated by the weight loss during wear test. A new phase of Ti5Si3 was detected by electron probe microanalyzer （EPMA） and X-ray diffraction （XRD） method. The original Si3N4 decomposed during sintering and transformed into titanium silicide. Porous structure was achieved due to the sintering reaction.     

Influence of sharp microstructural gradients on the fatigue crack growth resistance of α+β and near-α titanium alloys

The present study focuses on the effect of microstructural gradients on the fatigue crack growth resistance of Ti‐6Al‐4V and Ti‐6242 titanium alloys. Sharp microstructural gradients from fine‐grained bimodal to coarse‐grained lamellar microstructures were obtained by heat treating only a portion of fine‐grained plates in the β single‐phase field using a high‐frequency induction coil. For fatigue crack growth from a bimodal into a lamellar microstructure, it was found that the initial crack extension past the microstructural transition within the lamellar microstructure shows the same crack growth resistance as the reference bimodal microstructure. Similarly, for fatigue crack growth from a lamellar into a bimodal microstructure, the initial crack extension past the microstructural transition within the bimodal microstructure shows same crack growth resistance as the reference lamellar microstructure. Based on detailed crack front profile investigations using optical light and scanning electron microscopy as well as heat tinting procedures, these findings can be mainly attributed to the effect of the crack front geometry.     

A New Approach for Manufacturing a High Porosity Ti-6Al-4V Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications

Titanium and its alloys are currently considered as one of the most important metallic materials used in the biomedical applications, due to their excellent mechanical properties and superior biocompatibility. In the present study, a new effective method for fabricating high porosity titanium alloy scaffolds was developed. Porous Ti-6Al-4V scaffolds are successfully fabricated with porosities ranging from 30% to 70% using spaceholder and powder sintering technique. Based on its acceptable properties, spherical carbamide particles with different diameters （0.56, 0.8, and 1mm） were used as the space-holder material in the present investigation. The Ti-6Al-4V scaffolds porosity is characterized by using scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the scaffolds spherical-shaped pores are depending on the shape, size and distribution of the space-holder particles. This investigation shows that the present new manufacturing technique is promising to fabricate a controlled high porosity and high purity Ti-6Al-4V scaffolds for hard tissue replacement.