Preschool executive control on the Shape School task: Measurement considerations and utility.

Executive functions (EF) necessary for purposeful goal-directed activities undergo rapid change and development during the preschool years. However, of the few psychometrically valid measures of EF suitable for use with preschoolers, information on task sensitivity and predictive validity is scant. The neurodevelopmental correlates of early executive difficulties are also largely unknown. In this study, the discriminant and predictive validity of the recently developed Shape School task (Espy, Bull, Martin, & Stroup, 2006) was examined with data from a regional sample of 209 preschool children at age 4 years. A 2-tiered measurement approach was used, with task completion examined in addition to efficiency. Children's performance was also examined in relation to functioning in a range of neurodevelopmental domains. The Shape School task showed some usefulness in capturing expected differences between at-risk and typically developing children. Performance loaded heavily on language and global cognitive abilities. However, several other factors were also implicated, including attention, motor skills, and ocular control. In addition, task completion and efficiency scores appeared to reflect different aspects of performance, and their associations with neurodevelopmental function and later academic achievement on the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement at age 6 years also differed. Implications for the application of the Shape School task are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Executive functions and social competence in young children 6 months following traumatic brain injury.

Objective: This study examined the impact of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in young children on executive functions and social competence, and particularly on the role of executive functions as a predictor of social competence. Method: Data were drawn from a prospective, longitudinal study. Participants were children between the ages of 3 years 0 months and 6 years 11 months at time of injury. The initial sample included 23 with severe TBI, 64 with moderate TBI, and 119 with orthopedic injuries (OI). All participants were assessed at 3 and 6 months postinjury. Executive functions were assessed using neuropsychological tests (Delayed Alternation task and Shape School) and parent ratings on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function and Child Behavior Questionnaire. Parents rated children's social competence on the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales, and Home and Community Social Behavior Scales. Results: Children with severe TBI displayed more negative outcomes than children with OI on neuropsychological tests, ratings of executive functions, and ratings of social competence (η2 ranged from .03 to .11). Neuropsychological tests of executive functions had significant but weak relationships with behavioral ratings of executive functions (ΔR2 ranged from .06 to .08). Behavioral ratings of executive functions were strongly related to social competence (ΔR2 ranged from .32 to .42), although shared rater and method variance likely contributed to these associations. Conclusions: Severe TBI in young children negatively impacts executive functions and social competence. Executive functions may be an important determinant of social competence following TBI. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Finding your marbles: does preschoolers' strategic behavior predict later understanding of mind?

The aim of this longitudinal study was to assess (a) stability of individual differences in preschoolers' executive function performance, (b) the external validity of 4 new simple executive function tasks, and (c) whether individual differences in early executive function performance could be used to predict later differences in theory of mind, or vice versa. Fifty children involved in an earlier study of relations between preschoolers' theory of mind, verbal ability, and executive function (C. Hughes, 1998) were followed up and tested 1 year later, using 1st- and 2nd-order false-belief tasks, a set of 4 simple executive function tasks, and a well-established executive test of planning: the Tower of London (T. Shallice, 1982). The results of the study support recent proposals (C. Hughes, 1996; J. Russell, 1996) that young children's understanding of mind is grounded in their growing competence in strategic planning and mental flexibility.     

Theoretical and statistical derivation of a screener for the behavioral assessment of executive functions in children.

The problem of valid measurement of psychological constructs remains an impediment to scientific progress, and the measurement of executive functions is not an exception. This study examined the statistical and theoretical derivation of a behavioral screener for the estimation of executive functions in children from the well-established Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). The original national standardization sample of the BASC–Teacher Rating Scales for children ages 6 through 11 was used (N = 2,165). Moderate-to-high internal consistency was obtained within each factor (.80–.89). A panel of experts was used for content validity examination. A confirmatory factor analysis model with 25 items loading on 4 latent factors (behavioral control, emotional control, attentional control, and problem solving) was developed, and its statistical properties were examined. The multidimensional model demonstrated adequate fit, and it was deemed invariant after configural, metric, and scalar measurement invariance tests across sex and age. Given its strong psychometric properties, with further tests of item validity, this instrument promises future clinical and research utility for the screening of executive functions in school-age children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is There Anything Special About the Aging of Source Memory?

A battery of cognitive tests designed to measure the constructs of episodic memory, perceptual speed, fluid ability, executive functioning, and vocabulary was administered to 330 adults between the ages of 18 and 89. Each participant also performed 4 different tasks designed to assess source memory. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the validity of a source-memory construct and to explore the relation of the source-memory construct to age and to the other cognitive variables. The variance common to the source-memory variables was strongly related to other cognitive abilities, suggesting that source memory may not have discriminant validity, and there were only small unique age-related effects on the source-memory construct after the influence of other abilities was considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance.

A study was conducted to examine changes in executive control processes over the life span. More specifically, changes in processes responsible for preparation and interference control that underlie the ability to flexibly alternate between two different tasks were examined. Individuals (N?=?152) ranging in age from 7 to 82 years participated in the study. A U-shaped function was obtained for switch costs (i.e., the time required to switch between tasks compared with a repeated-task baseline), with larger costs found for young children and older adults. Switch costs were reduced with practice, particularly for children. All age groups benefited from increased preparation time, with larger benefits observed for children and older adults. Adults benefited to a greater extent than children when the interval between the response to one task and the cue indicating which task to perform next was lengthened, which suggested faster decay of interference from the old task set for adults than for children. A series of hierarchical analyses indicated that the age-related variance in task-switching performance is independent, at least in part, from the age-related variance in other cognitive processes such as perceptual speed and working memory. The results are discussed in terms of the development and decline of executive control processes across the life span. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and initial validation of the Parent Behavior Inventory.

The Parent Behavior Inventory (PBI) is a brief measure of parenting behavior for use with the parents of preschool-age and young school-age children. It may be used as a parent self-report measure, a report measure for others familiar with the parent, or as an observational rating scale. Its parallel forms offer clinicians and researchers a single measure capable of multimethod, multi-informant, and multisetting assessment. The PRI's two independent scales, Supportive/Engaged and Hostile/Coercive, have sufficient content validity, show adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and relate to measures of parental affect, parental stress, and child behavior problems. Evidence for its usefulness as a rating scale is presented. The results provide support for the reliability and construct validity of the PBI and demonstrate its versatility as a measure of parenting behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A locus of control scale for children.

Presents reliability and validity evidence concerning a new measure of a generalized locus of control for children. Construction procedures (with an initial sample of 152 3rd through 9th grade children and a validating sample of 1,017 3rd through 12th grade Ss) leading to the final 40-item scale are described. Preliminary work showed that scores were not related to social desirability or intelligence test scores but to achievement. Continued research with the instrument conducted over a wide range of S populations has provided additional construct validation across variables such as popularity, ability to delay gratification, and prejudice. (22 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Child Behavior Scale: A teacher-report measure of young children's aggressive, withdrawn, and prosocial behaviors.

Few instruments provide reliable, valid data on peer-behavioral indicators of risk and competence in young children. The authors developed a teacher-report measure of young children's behavior with peers at school—the Child Behavior Scale (CBS)—and evaluated its reliability and validity. Data were gathered on 2 cohorts (n?=?206 per cohort) of 5- to 6-year-old children; teachers rated children on Aggressive With Peers, Prosocial With Peers, Asocial With Peers, Excluded by Peers, Anxious–Fearful, and Hyperactive–Distractible subscales twice during the school year. Scores were internally consistent, distinct, and relatively stable over time. The validation paradigm produced a network of correlations that was, overall, consistent with the hypothesized conceptual structure of the CBS. These findings replicated across cohorts and provide sufficient evidence of the reliability and validity of the CBS to recommend its use for behavioral assessment with young children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structural analysis of correlated factors: Lessons from the verbal-performance dichotomy of the Wechsler scales.

Exploratory and confirmatory analyses of the verbal–performance dichotomy of 3 Wechsler scales of intelligence are used to illustrate key concepts and procedures for the analysis of correlated factors. Although the constructs of interest in psychological assessment and applied research often are correlated with other variables, the fundamental question of just how high can the correlations among supposedly discrete constructs or factors be has not been resolved. Logically, based on the application of convergent and discriminant validity criteria, factors should have higher correlations with variables that they are intended to measure than with variables that they are not intended to measure. The structural issues have profound consequences when analyzed with respect to allowable inferences and decision outcomes for children. Incremental validity is reviewed and data is presented for 2 sets of data performed for the 3 scales investigated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure.

Although many tasks have been developed recently to study executive control in the preschool years, the constructs that underlie performance on these tasks are poorly understood. In particular, it is unclear whether executive control is composed of multiple, separable cognitive abilities (e.g., inhibition and working memory) or whether it is unitary in nature. A sample of 243 normally developing children between 2.3 and 6 years of age completed a battery of age-appropriate executive control tasks. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to compare multiple models of executive control empirically. A single-factor, general model was sufficient to account for the data. Furthermore, the fit of the unitary model was invariant across subgroups of children divided by socioeconomic status or sex. Girls displayed a higher level of latent executive control than boys, and children of higher and lower socioeconomic status did not differ in level. In typically developing preschool children, tasks conceptualized as indexes of working memory and inhibitory control in fact measured a single cognitive ability, despite surface differences between task characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Global–local and trail-making tasks by monolingual and bilingual children: Beyond inhibition.

In 3 experiments, a total of 151 monolingual and bilingual 6-year-old children performed similarly on measures of language and cognitive ability; however, bilinguals solved the global–local and trail-making tasks more rapidly than monolinguals. This bilingual advantage was found not only for the traditionally demanding conditions (incongruent global–local trials and Trails B) but also for the conditions not usually considered to be cognitively demanding (congruent global–local trials and Trails A). All the children performed similarly when congruent trials were presented in a single block or when perceptually simple stimuli were used, ruling out speed differences between the groups. The results demonstrate a bilingual advantage in processing complex stimuli in tasks that require executive processing components for conflict resolution, including switching and updating, even when no inhibition appears to be involved. They also suggest that simple conditions of the trail-making and global–local tasks involve some level of effortful processing for young children. Finally, the bilingual advantage in the trail-making task suggests that the interpretation of standardized measures of executive control needs to be reconsidered for children with specific experiences, such as bilingualism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral Assessment of Gambling: An Application of the Timeline Followback Method.

The Gambling Timeline Followback (G-TLFB), a measure of gambling behavior that uses the timeline followback methodology, was psychometrically evaluated with samples of frequent-gambling young adults. Seven dimensions of gambling behavior were assessed: type, frequency, duration, intent, risk, win-loss, and consumption of alcohol while gambling. The G-TLFB demonstrated adequate to excellent test-retest reliability with a sample of 57 frequent gamblers (r=.75 to .96) and with a group of 34 disordered gamblers (r=.73 to .93). With a separate sample of 58 frequent-gambling participants, convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity were assessed. The G-TLFB correlated positively with daily self-monitoring reports (r=.59 to .87). The dimensions of frequency and duration demonstraied concurrent validity with gambling screening instruments, and standard drinks consumed while gambling demonstrated concurrent validity with a measure of alcohol misuse. The G-TLFB also demonstrated discriminant validity with demographic variables and a measure of positive impression management. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Theraplay in the Chinese world: An intervention program for Hong Kong children with internalizing problems.

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Theraplay on reducing internalizing problems among young children. Described as at-risk for developing internalizing disorders, 46 children were randomly allocated to either the Theraplay condition or the wait-list control condition. A standardized measure of internalizing symptoms was completed before and after an 8-week period. Results showed that children from the Theraplay condition showed significantly fewer internalizing symptoms when compared to the waitlist group. Qualitative feedback from mothers and children were gathered to further understand the experience of Theraplay activities on the participants. Limitations and suggestions for future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Executive Functioning as a Potential Mediator of Age-Related Cognitive Decline in Normal Adults.

Critical requirements for the hypothesis that executive functioning is a potential mediator of age-related effects on cognitive functioning are that variables assumed to reflect executive functioning represent a distinct construct and that age-related effects on other types of cognitive functioning are reduced when measures of executive functioning are statistically controlled. These issues were investigated in a study involving 261 adults between 18 and 84 years of age. Although age-related effects on various cognitive abilities were substantially reduced after statistical control of the variance in measures hypothesized to represent executive functioning, there was only weak evidence for the existence of distinct constructs corresponding to executive functioning or to aspects of executive control concerned with inhibition, updating, or time sharing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring intelligence with the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test.

Critically evaluates the literature on the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GH) through 1977. Areas reviewed are administration and standardization of the Man and Woman scales, test ceiling, sex differences, the Quality scale, reliability, criterion validity, validity with measures of academic achievement, cultural variables, and use with the learning disabled and the mentally retarded. It was found that although the GH is a reliable measure for children between 5 and 12 yrs old, it is not a valid predictor of criterion measures of intelligence or academic achievement. Socioeconomic status was found to exert a more powerful effect on GH performance than race, geographic location, or size of place of residence. It is recommended that future research focus on the use of the test as a gross screening device for those in the lower ranges of intelligence. (89 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Complex prospective memory: Development across the lifespan and the role of task interruption.

Prospective memory (PM) reflects the product of cognitive processes associated with the formation, retention, delayed initiation, and execution of intentions. It has been proposed that developmental changes in PM across the lifespan are heavily dependent upon the developmental trajectory of executive control functions. This study is the first to apply a complex PM task to children, young adults, and older adults. The procedure allows for the assessment of each of the 4 phases of PM. During intention execution, the authors additionally manipulated whether participants had to actively interrupt attention to the current 'ongoing' task in order to switch to the execution of the next intended task. Group differences mirroring inverted U-shaped functions were observed in those phases conceptualized as relying on executive control (intention formation, initiation, and execution). Age differences in intention execution were substantially greater when active task interruption was necessary. The current study provides the first evidence of growth and decline of complex PM across the lifespan and suggests that the degree of inhibitory control needed to succeed in the task may be one factor underlying this development (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of working memory in six- and seven-year-old children.

Using cognitive methods to fractionate functionally distinct aspects of short-term memory, a test battery was designed to tap the A. D. Baddeley and G. Hitch (1974) model of working memory. The battery was administered to 87 children aged 6 and 7 years; other standardized attainment measures were obtained for a subgroup of the children concurrently and 1 year later. Correlations between subtest scores indicated high construct validity for the central executive and phonological loop measures, although not for the visuospatial measures. Central executive scores shared unique associations with performance on the vocabulary, literacy, and arithmetic tests, whereas phonological loop scores shared specific associations with vocabulary knowledge only. The substantial internal and external validity of the test battery establishes its suitability for guiding detailed theoretical analyses of working memory function. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of Executive Function Deficits and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on Academic Outcomes in Children.

The association between executive function deficits (EFDs) and functional outcomes were examined among children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Participants were children and adolescents with (n = 259) and without (n = 222) ADHD, as ascertained from pediatric and psychiatric clinics. The authors defined EFD as at least 2 executive function measures impaired. Significantly more children and adolescents with ADHD had EFDs than did control participants. ADHD with EFDs was associated with an increased risk for grade retention and a decrease in academic achievement relative to (a) ADHD alone, (b) controlled socioeconomic status, (c) learning disabilities, and (d) IQ. No differences were noted in social functioning or psychiatric comorbidity. Children and adolescents with ADHD and EFDs were found to be at high risk for significant impairments in academic functioning. These results support screening children with ADHD for EFDs to prevent academic failure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inhibitory processes in adults with persistent childhood onset ADHD.

The theory that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) stems from a deficit in an executive behavioral inhibition process has been little studied in adults, where the validity of ADHD is in debate. This study examined, in high-functioning young adults with persistent ADHD and a control group, 2 leading measures of inhibitory control: the antisaccade task and the negative priming task. ADHD adults showed weakened ability to effortfully stop a reflexive or anticipated oculomotor response but had normal ability to automatically suppress irrelevant information. Results suggest that an inhibitory deficit in ADHD is confined to effortful inhibition of motor response, that antisaccade and negative priming tasks index distinct inhibition systems, and that persistence of ADHD symptoms into adulthood is associated with persistence of executive motor inhibition deficits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)