Heavy metals (Pb,Cu, Zn and Cd) in the system soil – grapevine – grape

An Erratum has been published for this article in Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 79(15)1999, 2122. The investigation was carried out in the period 1991–1995 in a region with a major industrial pollutant, the Non‐Ferrous‐Metal Works, and a region with no industrial pollutants (as a control). The heavy metal content in soil, roots, annual shoots and perennial parts of grapevine, leaves, grapes and wine, was determined. Soil samples and roots of the rootstock Kober 5BB were taken at 10 cm intervals from depths of 0–100 cm. Roots were divided by thickness in fractions at 1 mm intervals. The shoots, bark, vascular tissue, wood, core and diaphragm were investigated. The leaf analyses included leaf blade and leaf petioles, and those of grapes, berry‐free raceme (washed in a lot of water and unwashed). Berries were analysed (the berry skin, the pulp and the seeds). The results obtained for the Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd contents in the grapevine roots show that they depend significantly both on their amounts in the soil and the age of the roots. The main parts of the heavy metal amounts taken by the roots of the grapevine from the soil are fixed and accumulated in the young feed rootlets (with diameters of 1 mm), and small amounts of them move through the conducting system to the older, larger diameter root system. The experimental data obtained for the presence of Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd in the separate tissues and organs of grapevines grown in an industrially polluted region showed that their amounts were mainly due to the heavy‐metal‐containing aerosols falling from the atmosphere. Part of them, however, got into the soil, and from there, even if in minimal amounts, penetrated via the root system into the grapevine plants and accumulated into their different overground parts. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

Influence of sustained deficit irrigation on colour parameters of Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz microscale wine fermentations

Background and Aims: This study aimed to explore the influence of sustained deficit irrigation (SDI) on the grape and wine colour parameters of two premium red wine grape varieties grown in the Sunraysia region of South Eastern Australia. Methods and Results: The SDI experiments were conducted during three vintages from 2003 to 2004, 2004 to 2005 and 2005 to 2006 on the Vitis vinfera cultivars Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz grafted to 140 Ruggeri (V. berlandieri × V. rupestris) rootstock. The grapevines were drip irrigated providing 100% of estimated ET_c (control) and three graded sustained water deficits (Cabernet Sauvignon 70, 52 and 43% of the control; Shiraz 65, 45 and 34% of the control). Microscale wine fermentations were conducted on grapes from the 2006 harvest to assess wine colour density, wine hue, red pigments, anthocyanins, phenolics and copigmentation products in the wine. Wine anthocyanin and phenolic concentrations for both varieties showed significant increases with increasing intensity of SDI. Conclusion: Increases in wine colour with SDI may result from changes in flavonoid biosynthesis as a result of grapevine responses to water deficit. Alternatively, increases in red wine colour could be caused by changes in chemical properties of the anthocyanins to copigmented or polymeric forms during the winemaking or ageing process. Significance of the Study: The Australian wine industry is currently affected by drought and reduced water allocations resulting in production of wine from grapes exposed to water deficit. Findings from this study provide knowledge to the wine industry as to how sustained deficit irrigation may modify wine colour.     

采前涂膜处理对宣化牛奶葡萄贮藏生理及品质的影响

研究采前涂膜处理对宣化牛奶葡萄的采后贮藏生理及保鲜效果。经采前挂蔓涂膜处理的牛奶葡萄在0℃条件贮藏100d,贮藏期间测定了果实的呼吸强度、乙烯释放量、总酚含量、叶绿素含量、可滴定酸含量等生理和品质指标。结果表明：采前涂膜处理可以显著抑制宣化牛奶葡萄果实在贮藏过程中的呼吸强度,处理组果实的呼吸强度比对照低42.5%～53.8%、并在一定程度上减少果实的乙烯释放量;采前涂膜能有效控制葡萄腐烂,贮藏结束时(100d)对照组腐烂率达75.3%,而涂膜处理组的腐烂率只有5.2%。同时可以减少褐变,贮藏75d时处理组的褐变指数比对照低81.6%。保持果实鲜绿色,处理组果实果皮叶绿素含量在50d和75d时为0.04mg/g和0.33mg/g,而对照组则为0.02mg/g和0.015mg/g;也可以保持葡萄果实可溶性固形物、可滴定酸含量,保持感官品质,延长保鲜期约50d。     

中国野生葡萄果实基本品质、酚类物质含量及其抗氧化活性分析

中国野生葡萄资源丰富,但对其利用有限;为揭示不同种野生葡萄的品质差异及进一步利用奠定理论基础,本研究对中国野生葡萄的10个种(46个株系)和不同对照品种(4份材料)的基本品质、酚类物质含量及其抗氧化活性指标进行评价。结果表明:1)除刺葡萄外,中国野生葡萄的单果质量小于‘赤霞珠’;中国野生葡萄的皮果比高于‘赤霞珠’。2)中国野生葡萄和对照之间糖的组成相似,果糖与葡萄糖所占的比例没有差异,总糖含量显著低于‘赤霞珠’和‘户太8号’;除刺葡萄外,中国野生葡萄的总酸含量显著高于对照‘赤霞珠’和‘户太8号’,中国野生葡萄的酒石酸/苹果酸的比值低于‘赤霞珠’,说明中国野生葡萄属于高苹果酸型;河岸葡萄和圆叶葡萄的糖酸含量与中国野生葡萄的糖酸含量较接近;‘赤霞珠’和‘户太8号’属于高糖低酸型,中国野生葡萄属于低糖高酸型。3)中国野生葡萄的抗氧化活性和酚类物质的含量变异较大,大部分的野生葡萄与‘赤霞珠’的酚类物质含量和抗氧化活相近,但中国野生葡萄的花色苷含量高于对照的花色苷含量。综上所述,中国野生葡萄中的燕山葡萄、蘡薁葡萄和刺葡萄的品质较好,其与‘赤霞珠’和‘户太8号’的糖酸组分、酚类物质含量及抗氧化活性接近。     

Antiangiogenetic Effects of 4 Varieties of Grapes In Vitro

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effects of grapes on the human umbilical vein endothelial (HUVE) cells’ capillary tube formation and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) expression secreted into the medium. Four different grape varieties (Concord, Niagara, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir) were extracted using 80% acetone and the extracts were stored at −80 °C. The total amount of phenolics and flavonoids for each of the 4 grape varieties were determined by spectrophotometry. Grape extracts were co-cultured with HUVE cells on Matrigel and inhibitory effects on tube formation were observed under a microscope. The inhibitory effects of grape extracts on MMP-2 expression were examined by zymogram. All 4 grape varieties inhibited the tube formation of HUVE cells in a dose-dependent manner on Matrigel. Except for Chardonnay, the other 3 grape varieties completely inhibited secretion of MMP-2 at 20 mg/mL. There was a significant positive relationship between the total phenolics and flavonoids and antiangiogenetic activities. The grapes tested have the potential to inhibit angiogenesis mainly by their phenolics and flavonoids contents, which partly contribute to their cancer chemopreventive efficacy.     

Is weight loss in ripening grape berries cv. Shiraz caused by impeded phloem transport?

Berry shrinkage in ripening grapes cv. Shiraz is systemic within a given grapevine and coincident between grapevines in any given season. In this present study on weight loss in ripening berries, ripening curves of non-solutes per berry (largely water) were similar to curves for berry weight (as a function of time). Both sets of curves were equivalent with respect to timing of maximum weights and subsequent rates of weight loss. However, curves of solutes per berry (largely sugar) increased steeply up to the time of maximum berry weight, then slowed and plateau-ed. We suggest that phloem sap is the sole source for water and solutes that enter grape berries subsequent to veraison, and accumulate until maximum berry weight. We further suggest that phloem flow becomes impeded at maximum berry weight.
As berry ripening proceeds, continuation of berry transpiration leads to berry shrinkage and a concentration of solutes; i.e. any increase in juice Brix depends on shrinkage. One implication is that assimilates enter a berry up to the onset of shrinkage, whereafter accumulation of non-anthocyanin glycosides (including glycosides of flavour compounds) depends upon their synthesis in situ.     

On‐the‐go sensing of grape berry anthocyanins during commercial harvest: development and prospects

Background and Aims: The development and adoption of Precision Viticulture approaches to grape and wine production have been hindered by the lack of a commercially available sensor for on‐the‐go sensing of fruit quality during harvest. In this work, we sought to deploy the Multiplex®, a fluorescence‐based non‐contact hand‐held optical sensor on a harvester, for on‐the‐go sensing of berry anthocyanins during the South Australian vintage of 2010. Methods and Results: Measurements made of anthocyanin concentrations in the laboratory using the Multiplex showed high correlation (R² > 0.9) with those made on the same grapes using the standard spectrophotogrametric method. When used in hand‐held mode in the field, data collected using Multiplex demonstrated a similar spatial structure to that observed in other data layers (remotely sensed vigour, yield, elevation). Similarly, when deployed on a harvester as an on‐the‐go sensor, data obtained using Multiplex exhibited the expected spatial structure. Conclusions: Meaningful measurement of grape berry anthocyanins on‐the‐go during harvest is feasible using Multiplex. Significance of the Study: This is the first time that berry colour has been sensed on‐the‐go during harvest. The work therefore paves the way for a greater focus on attributes of fruit quality in the delineation of vineyard management zones and implementation of Precision Viticulture.     

避雨栽培对蛇龙珠果实及葡萄酒质量影响研究初报

研究避雨栽培对酿酒葡萄果实采收期、果实品质和葡萄酒质量的影响,为酿酒葡萄避雨栽培技术的实施提供理论依据.以蛇龙珠(Vitis vinifera L cv.Cabernet Gernischt)为材料,采用简单避雨方式和露地栽培(对照),在果实转色期后监测果实糖酸变化,并测定成熟果实还原糖、总酸、花色素、总酚和单宁等指标;采用小容器酿造工艺酿制蛇龙珠干红葡萄酒,测定葡萄酒的颜色、花色素、总酚和单宁等指标.结果表明:(1)避雨栽培推迟了蛇龙珠果实的成熟期;(2)避雨栽培对蛇龙珠果实花色素、葡萄果皮中单宁含量影响极显著,对其他指标没有显著影响;(3)避雨栽培对蛇龙珠干红葡萄酒花色素含量及颜色影响极显著,对总酚和单宁含量无显著影响.     

栽培措施对酿酒葡萄赤霞珠和霞多丽果皮脂肪酸组分的影响

为研究栽培措施对酿酒葡萄脂肪酸组分的影响,以欧亚种(Vitis vinifera L.)酿酒葡萄品种赤霞珠(Cabernet Sauvignon)、霞多丽(Chardonnay)为实验材料,通过植物生长调节剂、摘叶、机械损伤、套袋、不同采收时间等方式进行处理分析。结果表明:葡萄果皮不饱和脂肪酸主要由亚油酸、油酸、棕榈油酸组成;亚麻酸未检测出;饱和脂肪酸主要由棕榈酸、硬脂酸、山嵛酸、花生酸组成。脱落酸、茉莉酸甲酯、光照强度、采收时间、机械损伤处理能够影响亚油酸的含量,并且这种影响与品种有关。在两个品种葡萄果皮中,都发现了呈显著正相关的脂肪酸组分,但品种间差异较大;在霞多丽葡萄果皮中,呈显著正相关的脂肪酸组分明显多于赤霞珠;并且,饱和脂肪酸之间的相关性强于不饱和脂肪酸之间的相关性。结果将为改善葡萄果皮脂肪酸组分,进而提高果实品质提供理论依据。     

Effect of freezing grape berries and heating must samples on extraction of components and composition parameters of red wine grape varieties

Juices from grape samples subjected to two storage methods (fresh and frozen) and two post-homogenisation treatments (21^oC and 71^oC) were examined for extraction of grape berry components and compared to a microvinified wine made from the same lot of fresh grapes. Cabernet Franc ( Vitis vinifera ) and Cynthiana ( Vitis aestivalis ) grapes were evaluated in 2003. Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon ( Vitis vinifera ), Chambourcin (interspecific hybrid) and Cynthiana grapes were evaluated in 2004. Fresh grapes from each variety were sampled, analysed and prepared for microvinification. Frozen grapes of all varieties were thawed and analysed at the same time. For all varieties in both years, heating the must of fresh or frozen grapes increased the titratable acidity (11–58%), tartaric acid levels (12–110%), potassium content (15–62%), darkness (31–97%), red colour (54–1517%) and total red pigment values (36–1171%) of juice as compared to the juice from unheated must. For all varieties in 2004, heating the must from fresh or frozen grapes increased total phenolics (43–619%) of juice as compared to the juice from unheated must. Compared to fresh grape processing, freezing the grapes and then processing at 21^oC or 71^oC had varying results (increases and decreases) regarding the extraction of components in all varieties and both years but usually provided juice with composition most similar to that of the red wine produced by microvinification. Although the degree of extraction of individual components in the juice is influenced by selection of grape storage and must processing procedures, consistency of handling and procedure provided consistent results with low variability.     

From bud to berry, with special reference to inflorescence and bunch morphology in Vitis vinifera L.

A brief review of the reproductive system of the grapevine is presented. Phases discussed include floral induction and initiation during early spring, inflorescence primordium growth during summer to dormancy, flower formation at budburst in the subsequent growing season, and finally flowering and berry development. Difficulties in clearly defining and describing some of these developmental stages will be outlined, especially the complex bud system, the morphology of buds at budburst, and the course of flowering. The course of floral development during dormancy and at the time of budburst requires further attention, especially the reported effect that low temperature at budburst leads to increased numbers of flowers. Also, the recent finding that 'intercarpellar' floral organs can be induced by applying auxin is of particular interest and will be described. Case studies from Burgundy vineyards with Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Gamay ovaries and berries will be included.
A detailed analysis of what constitutes a grape bunch will be presented from observations of Chardonnay inflorescences and bunches collected at random after set and at harvest in two seasons from spur-pruned, cane-pruned and hedged vines growing on two sites varying in climate and productivity (Adelaide Hills and Southern Vales of South Australia). This analysis covered variability in numbers of branches and flowers and in per cent berry set, as well as relationships between branch numbers and flower numbers. Relationships between flower numbers and per cent set, per cent set and berry size along the inflorescence, and berry size and seed complement are outlined. Likely implications of inter-bunch and intra-bunch variability for bunch compactness, berry composition and yield components are discussed.     

Influence of shriveling on berry composition and antioxidant activity of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes from Shanxi vineyards

BACKGROUND: Berry shrivel (BS), a berry development disorder, appears soon after veraison. It occurs worldwide and affects the quality of grape berries and wine. However, it had not been reported in China until recently. This study aimed to investigate the changes in berry composition and antioxidant activity of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes from Xiangning Valley, Shanxi Province, China, during BS. RESULTS: Shrinkage contributed to an increase in the concentration of basic grape ingredients such as sugar and acid. An appropriate degree of shrinkage was apparently helpful in improving the phenolic content and increasing the antioxidant activity, but the berries that continued to shrivel showed a low antioxidant activity. Further, the results indicated distinct differences between the berries harvested from the southern side of the canopy and those harvested from the northern side, presumably due to variations in sunlight exposure. CONCLUSION: Moderate BS was beneficial since it increased berry quality and antioxidant activity of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes from Shanxi vineyards. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Rootstock and salinity effects on rates of berry maturation, ion accumulation and colour development in Shiraz grapes

Shiraz grapevines on either their own roots, or on the rootstocks Ramsey, 1103 Paulsen, 140 Ruggeri or 101–14, were grown at two separate sites within the Murray‐Darling viticultural region with similar irrigation regimes but with an irrigation water salinity of either 0.43 dS/m (low salinity site) or 2.3 dS/m (high salinity site). Rootstock effects on grape berry development, ion concentrations, soluble solids and acidity were followed during one season. Wines were also made and compared using spectral analysis and sensory evaluation. Rootstock effects that were common across both sites were (1) a close relationship between K+and soluble solids accumulation in developing grape berries which commenced at the onset of veraison and was indicative of a link between K+and sucrose transport in the phloem, and (2), higher wine K+, pH and colour hue for all rootstocks with one exception, namely 101–14 at high salinity where 101–14 responded similarly to own roots. Juice K+, pH and loss of K+from juice during winemaking were highest for grapes from the high salinity site. Mean berry weight was smaller and the range in berry size across rootstocks was narrower at the saline site. The narrower range in berry sizes may have contributed to fewer rootstock effects on wine spectral characteristics at high salinity. There was no effect of rootstock on CO₂ assimilation rate or stomatal conductance at either site, although intrinsic leaf‐based water‐use efficiency measured as A/g was 50% higher at the saline site. All treatments exhibited berry shrivel at maturity, but the extent was smaller at high salinity. Slower development of berry colour during veraison was observed on some rootstocks, for example 101–14, and while unrelated to canopy size per se, a higher leaf‐to‐fruit ratio for 101–14 may have been a factor. Slower berry colour development during veraison had no bearing on the colour density of wine made from the harvested grapes.     

外源脱落酸处理对葡萄果实及葡萄酒中抗氧化成分的影响

以天津蓟州区栽培的"美乐"和"赤霞珠"葡萄为试验品种,分别在其始熟期的初、中和末期3个阶段利用外源脱落酸(200 mg/L)处理果实,采用分光光度法测定葡萄和葡萄酒中酚类总含量和抗氧化活性,利用液质联用技术分析花色苷的含量和组成.研究结果表明:始熟期的外源脱落酸处理对成熟果实的质量、可溶性固形物、可滴定酸和pH值,以及葡萄籽的酚类含量和抗氧化活性没有显著影响,但对葡萄皮和葡萄酒的酚类物质含量和活性具有显著影响.在始熟期中期(30％ ～50％果实转色)以前,对果实喷施外源脱落酸可以显著提高葡萄皮和葡萄酒的酚类总含量、花色苷总含量和抗氧化活性.始熟期外源脱落酸处理使"美乐"和"赤霞珠"果实的酚类总含量分别提高了14％ ～39％和73％ ～172％,花色苷总含量和抗氧化活性分别提高了18％ ～143％和88％ ～178％;外源脱落酸处理使葡萄酒的3个指标(酚类总含量、花色苷总含量和抗氧化活性)分别提高了17％ ～69％、18％ ～36％和21％ ～46％,而这些影响可以有效改善葡萄酒的感官品质和营养价值.外源脱落酸处理时期的精准控制可以提高酿酒葡萄及葡萄酒中酚类物质含量及抗氧化作用,进而提高葡萄酒品质和营养价值.     

Understanding the microbial ecosystem on the grape berry surface through numeration and identification of yeast and bacteria

Microbial species present on the surface of grape berries at harvest play an important role in winemaking, thus counting and identifying them is of great importance. The use of conventional microbial techniques and molecular methods allowed a quantitative and qualitative inventory of the different microbial species present on the grape berries. These experiments were carried out in several areas of the Bordeaux region on the red grape varieties Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc. Populations and species clearly varied according to berry development stage. The most widespread yeast species at berry set, Aureobasidium pullulans was never detected at harvest. Fermentative yeasts were detected at harvest and not in the first stage of grape growth. Oenoccocus oeni was detected on immature as well as on mature berries. Gluconobacter oxydans was detected mainly at harvest. Detection of Pediococcus parvulus , was dependent on the vineyard. Veraison appeared to be a key stage for yeast colonisation and the increase in population involved a change in the proportion of each species. The number of A. pullulans fell significantly at veraison as it was superseded by fermentative yeasts. Microbial populations peaked at harvest when the berry surface available for adhesion was largest and no agrochemical treatments had been applied for some weeks. Soil, grape variety and grapegrowing practices may also influence this microbial ecosystem. Based on these and published data, we formulated hypotheses to describe this microbial ecosystem, thus enabling us to develop the concept of a microbial biofilm.     

Comparison of major volatile compounds from Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) from fruitset to harvest

Background and Aims: Research on concentration changes of volatile compounds during grape physiological development has focused on the period from veraison to harvest. This study compared the developmental changes in the major volatile compounds released after the crushing of Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes sampled from fruitset to harvest during the 2007–2008 season. Methods and Results: Volatile compounds were extracted from the headspace of crushed Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes sampled throughout berry development using solid-phase microextraction and analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. A multivariate statistical approach coupled with analysis of variance was applied to compare the developmental changes in volatile compounds for the two cultivars. In both cultivars, E-2-hexenal was the most abundant volatile compound, and it showed a significant increase in concentration after veraison. Benzene derivatives discriminated ripe Cabernet Sauvignon grapes, whereas monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes discriminated both cultivars pre-veraison with a broader range of terpenes observed in the Cabernet Sauvignon samples compared with the Riesling samples. At veraison, terpene production in both varieties was low, but Riesling grapes produced some terpenes (geraniol and α-muurolene) post-veraison. Generally, esters and aldehydes were the major class of compounds from Riesling grapes, while Cabernet Sauvignon showed a greater tendency to form alcohols. Conclusions: Both Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes had a more complex volatile compound composition pre-veraison than post-veraison. This study suggests that some compounds that contribute to grape aroma may be produced pre-veraison, and not simply accumulate after veraison. Significance of the Study: Understanding the timing of volatile compound production and cultivar differences will guide viticulture researchers and growers in the optimisation of vineyard strategies to enhance grape aroma attributes that may, in turn, contribute to wine aroma.     

Ochratoxin A occurrence and formation in Portuguese wine grapes at various stages of maturation

A total of 93 Portuguese grape samples destined for wine production were examined for the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) and the OTA producing fungi Aspergillus carbonarius and A. niger aggregate. Samples came from 11 vineyards from four winemaking regions in the North and South of the Portuguese mainland, during the harvest seasons of 2001, 2002 and 2003. Grapes were examined at 3 maturation stages, from setting to the harvesting period, to evaluate when contamination with OTA producing fungi and OTA synthesis occur. The detection of fungi in grape samples was made by plating methods with and without surface disinfection. OTA was formed by 14% of the 650 isolates tested. Most of the OTA producing strains (96%) were isolated at harvest time. At this stage, the percentage of grape samples with OTA producing strains detected without surface disinfection was 56%. With surface disinfection, A. carbonarius was isolated from 10% of the samples. OTA was detected in grapes at the 3 maturation stages. The average OTA concentrations in 60 samples at pea berry (28 samples), early veraison (22 samples) and ripe berry (20 samples) were 263, 149 and 35 ng/kg, respectively. Experiments with an A. carbonarius strain demonstrated that OTA production differs significantly with the composition of the berries at different maturation stages (P<0.001), with a mean value of OTA production at pea berry, early veraison and ripe berry of 3402, 1530 and 22 mug/kg, respectively. The production of OTA by A. carbonarius was correlated positively and negatively with the total acidity of grapes (r(s)=0.855, P<0.001) and reducing sugars content (r(s)=-0.835, P<0.001), respectively. Our data demonstrate that OTA synthesis in grapes occurs since early maturation stages.     

Deciphering the ability of different grapevine genotypes to accumulate sugar in berries

Background and Aims: To analyse the genetic determinants of berry sugar content in grapevine varieties, a method that combined measurements of total soluble solids (TSS) from berries sampled at a fixed stage after veraison with data on the yield and the leaf area was tested. Methods and Results: Over three seasons, differences in TSS at harvest for Riesling and Gewurztraminer grapes were explained by differences in the veraison dates and in the fruit‐to‐leaf ratios. TSS, yield and leaf area were also evaluated for 120 genotypes, which were progeny from a cross between Riesling and Gewurztraminer. Thermal timescales (degree‐days) proved relevant for describing sugar accumulation in the parent varieties, and when berries were sampled at a fixed heat sum after veraison in the progeny, the genotypic variability of sugar content was considerably reduced compared with the measurements on the same date at the end of the season. A negative relationship between the fruit‐to‐leaf ratio and the sugar content was also detected in the progeny. Conclusions: The evolution of TSS during berry ripening can be described using thermal timescales. Additionally, information on the yield and the leaf area needs to be integrated to analyse the behaviour of genotypes. Significance of the Study: A method to characterize the genotypic effect on fruit sugar accumulation after eliminating the contribution of veraison dates and crop load was proposed.