Preparation and properties of octadecylamine modified graphene oxide/styrene‐butadiene rubber composites through an improved melt compounding method

Octadecylamine modified graphene oxide/styrene‐butadiene rubber (GO‐ODA/SBR) composites are prepared by a novel and environmental‐friendly method called “Improved melt compounding”. A GO‐ODA/ethanol paste mixture is prepared firstly, and then blended with SBR by melt compounding. GO‐ODA sheets are uniformly dispersed in SBR as confirmed by scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscopy, and X‐ray diffraction. The interfacial interaction between GO‐ODA and SBR is weaker than that between GO and SBR, which is proved by equilibrium swelling test and dynamic mechanical analysis. GO‐ODA/SBR show more pronounced “Payne effect” than GO/SBR composites, indicating enhanced filler networks resulted from the modification of GO with ODA. GO‐ODA/SBR composite has higher tensile strength and elongation at break than SBR and GO/SBR composite. The tensile strength and elongation at break for the composite with 5 parts GO‐ODA per hundred parts of rubber increase by 208% and 172% versus neat SBR, respectively. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 42907.     

聚乳酸／功能化石墨烯纳米复合薄膜的制备与性能

以十八烷基胺修饰氧化石墨烯(GO–ODA)为纳米填料,通过溶液铸膜法制备了聚乳酸(PLA)／GO–ODA纳米复合薄膜。用傅立叶变换红外光谱和扫描电子显微镜对GO–ODA及纳米复合薄膜的化学结构及形貌进行了表征,并对纳米复合薄膜的拉伸性能、热稳定性和透氧率进行了测试。结果表明,GO–ODA与PLA具有良好的相容性,可均匀分散于PLA基体中,对PLA膜起到增韧增强的效果,同时GO–ODA的加入使PLA的热稳定性和氧气阻隔性均有所提高。     

Poly(methyl methacrylate) nanocomposites based on graphene oxide: a comparative investigation of the effects of surface chemistry on properties and foaming behavior

The effects of oxygen functional groups and alkyl chains at the surface of graphene oxide (GO) on the thermal stability, mechanical properties and foaming behavior of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanocomposites were investigated. Alkyl‐functionalized GO (GO‐ODA) was prepared by grafting octadecylamine (ODA) on the surface of GO. PMMA/GO and PMMA/GO‐ODA nanocomposite were obtained by solution blending and were foamed using supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂). GO‐ODA, with the presence of alkyl chains, showed a better dispersion capability in PMMA matrix than GO with a large amount of oxygen functional groups. In addition, the good dispersion capability increased thermal stability and mechanical strength. In comparison with PMMA/GO samples foamed at 70 °C, PMMA/GO‐ODA nanocomposite foams displayed improved cell structures with higher cell density, smaller cell size and more homogeneous cell size distribution, which results from the strong heterogeneous nucleation due to alkyl chains on the GO surface. The foaming behaviors became more complicated at 80 °C as the GO might be intercalated and exfoliated with the aid of scCO₂, thus further enhancing the heterogeneous nucleation during the foaming process. The results indicated that the surface chemistry of GO was closely related to the properties and foaming behavior of the nanocomposites. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry     

Thermal and mechanical properties of plasticized poly(L‐lactide) nanocomposites with organo‐modified montmorillonites

Nanocomposites of poly(lactide) (PLA) and the PLA plasticized with diglycerine tetraacetate (PL‐710) and ethylene glycol oligomer containing organo‐modified montmorillonites (ODA‐M and PGS‐M) by the protonated ammonium cations of octadecylamine and poly(ethylene glycol) stearylamine were prepared by melt intercalation method. In the X‐ray diffraction analysis, the PLA/ODA‐M and plasticized PLA/ODA‐M composites showed a clear enlargement of the difference of interlayer spacing between the composite and clay itself, indicating the formation of intercalated nanocomposite. However, a little enlargement of the interlayer spacing was observed for the PLA/PGS‐M and plasticized PLA/PGS‐M composites. From morphological studies using transmission electron microscopy, a finer dispersion of clay was observed for PLA/ODA‐M composite than PLA/PGS‐M composite and all the composites using the plasticized PLA. The PLA and PLA/PL‐710 composites containing ODA‐M showed a higher tensile strength and modulus than the corresponding composites with PGS‐M. The PLA/PL‐710 (10 wt %) composite containing ODA‐M showed considerably higher elongation at break than the pristine plasticized PLA, and had a comparable tensile modulus to pure PLA. The glass transition temperature (T_g) of the composites decreased with increasing plasticizer. The addition of the clays did not cause a significant increase of T_g. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2006     

Synthesis and Properties of GO‐Doped Porous Hydrogel Nanocomposites with Semi‐Interpenetrating Network Structure

Superabsorbent hydrogel nanocomposites (SHN) with semi‐interpenetrating polymer network (semi‐IPN) are synthesized by the polymerization of acrylamide monomer in a polyethylene glycol aqueous solution in the presence of the octadecylamine (ODA)‐modified graphene oxide (GO‐ODA) nanosheets. The hydrogel composites are characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermal gravity analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. The water absorbency of the resulting SHN in distilled water and saline solutions are measured. The results show that doping GO‐ODA nanosheets into hydrogel semi‐IPN would enhance both their salt resistance and water retention. Using a simple freezing‐dry method, porous SHN with macroscopically interconnected pores is prepared, which exhibits excellent separation ability for removal of trace water from oils. Based on their better water absorbency, salt resistance, and excellent oil/water separation ability, the resulting SHN has great potentials in a wide range of applications, for example, oil dehydration, absorption, and separation.

     

Glass fiber coated with graphene constructed through electrostatic self‐assembly and its application in poly(lactic acid) composite

A method to construct glass fiber/graphene material via the electrostatic self‐assembly was proposed. The graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets were firstly prepared from graphite according to Hummer's methods. Oppositely charged GO is successfully introduced to the surface of the GF cationized by 3‐aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) treatment in the solution with mild agitation. Sequently, glass fibers coated with graphene (GF/CRG) were obtained after chemical reduction. The graphene content was characterized by TGA and XPS tests and the value of about 0.7 wt % was obtained. Composites of poly(lactic acid) and GF/CRG were prepared through melt blending. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) results shows that more than 50% graphene remains on the surface of GF after processing, which indicates a strong binding between GF and graphene. GF/CRG has significant influences on crystallization and mechanical property of PLA: the crystallinity of PLA increases from 27.61 to 51.29%; the tensile strength of the PLA–GF/CRG composite is about 63% larger than the pure PLA at the GF/CRG content of 10 wt %. This new method can apply to making composites with high performance. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43296.     

Graphene oxide/fluorhydroxyapatite composites with enhanced chemical stability,mechanical, and biological properties for dental applications

A novel graphene oxide‐based fluorhydroxyapatite (GO/FHA) composite is prepared using an in situ chemical synthesis method. The mechanical properties, chemical stability, in vitro bioactivity, and antibacterial properties of the as‐synthesized GO/FHA composites with different GO amounts are reported. The result shows that the mechanical properties of the composites are strongly dependent on the adding amount of GO. The result of chemical stability indicates that the substitution of fluorine (F) into the hydroxyapatite (HA) crystal has a positive effect on the dissolution resistance. The in vitro bioactivity assessment shows that the osteoblast proliferation and differentiation ability on GO/FHA composites are improved.     

Preparation and characterization of amidated graphene oxide and its effect on the performance of poly(lactic acid)

An improved Hummers method was used to prepare graphene oxide (GO). Then, the orthogonal experiment design methods were used to select the optimum conditions of the preparation for amidated graphene oxide (AGO) via amidation. The optimum scheme was followed by: reaction temperature 70 °C, reaction time 5 h and GO: benzohydrazide of 1:3 (g:g). The structure of AGO was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscope (TEM) techniques, which demonstrated that the amidation of GO was successful. Furthermore, poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/AGO nanocomposites were prepared by melt blending to improve the comprehensive performance of PLA. Mechanical properties, thermal stabilities, crystallization properties, and rheological behavior of PLA/AGO nanocomposites were investigated, which showed that the addition of 0.3 wt % of AGO increased the tensile strength, elongation-at-break, and impact strength of PLA/AGO nanocomposites by 7.68, 47.32 and 41.27%, respectively, compared with neat PLA. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed ductile fracture of the PLA/AGO nanocomposites. TEM analysis showed that nano-AGO single layers were evenly dispersed in the PLA matrix, confirming the formation of an exfoliated nanocomposite structure. Differential scanning calorimetry demonstrated that AGO eliminated the cold crystallization of PLA matrix and improved the crystallinity of PLA by 34.1%. In all, this study provided an effective and feasible method for improving the comprehensive performance of PLA.     

Fabrication of mPEGylated graphene oxide/poly(2‐dimethyl aminoethyl methacrylate) nanohybrids and their primary application for small interfering RNA delivery

Graphene oxide (GO)‐based nanohybrids were designed for small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery for their high water dispensability, good biocompatibility, easily tunable surface functionalization, and particular optical properties. In this study, novel nanohybrids based on GO were fabricated. Methoxypoly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG) was covalently conjugated to GO via amide bonds. Then, poly(2‐dimethyl aminoethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA), which was synthesized via reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer polymerization (RAFT) with 2‐(dodecyl thiocarbonothioyl thio)‐2‐methyl propionic acid (DTM) as the RAFT agent, was attached onto GO via physical interaction between DTM and GO. Compared with Lipofectamine 2000, the novel mPEG–GO/PDMAEMA nanohybrids showed comparable gene transfection efficiency and a low cytotoxicity. Moreover, the mPEG–GO/PDMAEMA nanohybrids showed enhanced optical properties compared to the original GO because of the presence of mPEG and PDMAEMA. Our work encouraged further exploration of the novel nanovector for combined photothermal and siRNA delivery. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43303.     

Cellulose nanocrystal-mediated assembly of graphene oxide in natural rubber nanocomposites with high electrical conductivity

This study reports a green and powerful strategy for preparing cellulose nanocrystal (CNC)/graphene oxide (GO)/natural rubber (NR) nanocomposites hosting a 3D hierarchical conductive network. Due to good dispersibility and amphiphilic nature of CNC, well dispersed CNC/GO nanohybrids were prepared. Hydrogen bonding interactions between CNC and GO greatly enhanced the stability of the CNC/GO nanohybrids. CNC/GO nanohybrids were introduced into NR latex under sonication and the mixture was cast. Self-assembled CNC/GO nanohybrids preferentially dispersed in the interstice between latex microspheres allowing the construction of a 3D hierarchical conductive network. By combining strong hydrogen bonds and 3D conductive network, both electrical conductivity and mechanical properties (tensile strength and modulus) have been significantly improved. The electrical conductivity of the nanocomposite with 4 wt% GO and 5 wt% CNC exhibited an increase of nine orders of magnitude compared to the nanocomposite with only 4 wt% GO; meanwhile, the electrical percolation threshold was 3-fold lower than for NR/GO composites.     

SiO2-covered graphene oxide nanohybrids for in situ preparation of UHMWPE/GO(SiO2) nanocomposites with superior mechanical and tribological properties

The modified Hummer technique was used in the preparation of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets, and then SiO₂ decorated GO [GO(SiO₂)] nanosheets were synthesized via the sol–gel method. Then, ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) nanocomposites loaded with 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 wt % of GO(SiO₂) were prepared using magnesium ethoxide/GO(SiO₂)-supported Ziegler–Natta catalysts via the in situ polymerization. Morphological study of the prepared polymer powders was assessed using field-emission scanning electron microscopy, which showed that GO(SiO₂) nanohybrids have been uniformly dispersed and distributed into the UHMWPE matrix. Also, the neat UHMWPE and its nanocomposites were evaluated with different analyses, including viscosity-average molecular weight measurement, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, tensile test, scratch hardness, and pin-on-disk test. The characterization of the UHMWPE nanocomposites indicated that many characterizations, including the mechanical, thermal, and tribological properties of UHMWPE, were significantly improved by incorporation of these new nanosheets in spite of the molecular weight reduction of the polymeric matrix and the improved flowability and processability of the produced nanocomposite. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019 , 136, 47796.     

Performance enhancement of polylactide by nanoblending with POSS and graphene oxide

We report the effect of filler modification on the properties of polylactide (PLA)‐based nanocomposites, where graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets and polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) nanocages are employed as nanofillers. The organically treated nanofillers are termed as GO‐functionalized and POSS‐functionalized. The synthesis of the nanocomposites was carried out via in situ ring‐opening polymerization of lactic acid (LA). The following four naocomposite systems were prepared, characterized, and compared to achieve a better understanding of structure‐property relationship (1) PLA/GO‐functionalized, (2) PLA/POSS‐functionalized, (3) PLA/physical mixture of GO‐functionalized and POSS‐functionalized, and (4) PLA/GO‐graft‐POSS (with eight hydroxyl groups). As revealed by the thermal and mechanical (nanoindendation) characterization, that the nanocomposites having a combination of GO and POSS as nanofiller, either as physical mixture of GO‐functionalized and POSS‐functionalized or as GO‐graft‐POSS, is far more superior as compared with the nanocomposites having individually dispersed nanofillers in the PLA matrix. Observed enhancement is attributing to the synergistic effect of the nanofillers as well as better dispersion of the modified‐fillers in the matrix. POLYM. COMPOS., 35:118–126, 2014. © 2013 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Microwave irradiation synthesis and characterization of RGO‐AgNPs/polystyrene nanocomposites

Polystyrene and reduced graphene oxide/silver (PSTY/RGO/AgNPs) nanocomposites were prepared via an in situ bulk polymerization method using two different preparation techniques. In the first approach, a mixture of silver nitrate, hydrazine hydrate, and polystyrene containing graphene oxide (PSTY/GO) were reduced by microwave irradiation (MWI) to obtain R‐(PSTY‐GO)/AgNPs nanocomposites. In the second approach, a mixture of the (RGO/AgNPs) nanocomposite, which was produced via MWI, and STY monomers were polymerized using an in situ bulk polymerization method to obtain PSTY‐RGO/AgNPs nanocomposites. The two nanocomposites were compared and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy, high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy, Differential scanning calorimetry, and thermogravimetric analysis. The results indicate that the nanocomposites obtained using the first approach, which involved MWI, exhibited a better morphology and dispersion with enhanced thermal stability compared to the nanocomposites prepared without MWI. POLYM. COMPOS., 35:2318–2323, 2014. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

GO表面原位生长CNTs改善聚丙烯导热复合材料分散与界面形态

二维结构氧化石墨烯(GO)纳米片在高分子导热复合材料领域有良好应用前景,但常受限于片层间相互作用过大导致的局部团聚,不利于力学性能和导热性能的提高。借助GO纳米片表面和边缘提供的大量活性位点以吸附铁基催化剂,进而通过微波辅助合成方法在GO表面原位生长碳纳米管(CNTs)的策略,在数分钟内合成具有三维多层次结构的纳米杂化体(GO-CNT)。通过常规熔融共混方法,可获得GO-CNT在聚丙烯(PP)基体中良好剥离与均匀分散形态,明显不同于GO/PP复合体系中严重的局部团聚现象。均匀分散的GO-CNT对PP复合材料的力学性能和导热性能提升效果显著：在3%(质量分数)含量下,复合材料的屈服强度和热导率分别达到了38.0 MPa和0.76 W/(m·K),较纯PP增幅分别为20%和230%,明显优于传统GO改性复合材料。本研究为解决纳米片状填料在导热复合材料中的应用瓶颈提供了可行的结构设计策略和复合材料制备方法。     

Characterization and performance of dodecyl amine functionalized graphene oxide and dodecyl amine functionalized graphene/high‐density polyethylene nanocomposites: A comparative study

Dodecyl amine (DA) functionalized graphene oxide(DA‐GO) and dodecyl amine functionalized reduced graphene oxide (DA‐RGO) were produced by using amidation reaction and chemical reduction, then two kinds of well dispersed DA‐GO/high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) and DA‐RGO/HDPE nanocomposites were prepared by solution mixing method and hot‐pressing process. Thermogravimetric, X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffractions, and Raman spectroscopy analyses showed that DA was successfully grafted onto the graphene oxide surface by uncleophilic substitution and the amidation reaction, which increased the intragallery spacing of graphite oxide, resulting in the uniform dispersion of DA‐GO and DA‐RGO in the nonpolar xylene solvent. Morphological analysis of nanocomposites showed that both DA‐GO and DA‐RGO were homogeneously dispersed in HDPE matrix and formed strong interfacial interaction. Although the crystallinity, dynamic mechanical, gas barrier, and thermal stability properties of HDPE were significantly improved by addition of small amount of DA‐GO or DA‐RGO, the performance comparison of DA‐GO/HDPE and DA‐RGO/HDPE nanocomposites indicated that the reduction of DA‐GO was not necessary because the interfacial adhesion and aspect ratio of graphene sheets had hardly changed after reduction, which resulting in almost the same properties between DA‐GO/HDPE and DA‐RGO/HDPE nanocomposites. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 39803.     

Conversion of pencil graphite to graphene/polypyrrole nanofiber composite electrodes and its doping effect on the supercapacitive properties

Graphene platelets were synthesized from pencil flake graphite and commercial graphite by chemical method. The chemical method involved modified Hummer's method to synthesize graphene oxide (GO) and the use of hydrazine monohydrate to reduce GO to reduced graphene oxide (rGO). rGO were further reduced using rapid microwave treatment in presence of little amount of hydrazine monohydrate to graphene platelets. Chemically modified graphene/polypyrrole (PPy) nanofiber composites were prepared by in situ anodic electropolymerization of pyrrole monomer in the presence of graphene on stainless steel substrate. The morphology, composition, and electronic structure of the composites together with PPy fibers, graphene oxide (GO), rGO, and graphene were characterized using X‐ray diffraction (XRD), laser‐Raman, and scanning electron microscopic (SEM) methods. From SEM, it was observed that chemically modified graphene formed as a uniform nanocomposite with the PPy fibers absorbed on the graphene surface and/or filled between the graphene sheets. Such uniform structure together with the observed high conductivities afforded high specific capacitance and good cycling stability during the charge–discharge process when used as supercapacitor electrodes. A specific capacitance of supercapacitor was as high as 304 F g^?1 at a current density of 2 mA cm^?1 was achieved over a PPy‐doped graphene composite. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 55:2118–2126, 2015. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Comparing the rheological and reinforcing effects of graphene oxide on glassy and semicrystalline polymers

In this work, a comparative study was performed on nanocomposites, based on three different polymeric matrices, namely polylactic‐acid (PLA), polystyrene (PS), and linear low‐density polyethyelene (mLLDPE), produced by metallocene catalyst. The reinforcing agent was graphene oxide (GO) at one percentage content (1 wt%) and the nanocomposites were prepared by the melt‐mixing procedure, whereas the matrix type employed was found to be decisive in the thermomechanical properties improvement. The thermomechanical performance of these material systems was studied by scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical analysis, tensile testing, and creep and stress relaxation. The mechanical and rheological performance was comparatively studied, and an attempt was made to relate the macroscopic response with the nanocomposites micromorphology. Furthermore, the tensile response was analyzed by a viscoplastic model, introduced earlier, and the model parameters involved provide additional evidence about the nanocomposites micromorphology. The findings of the comparative study are encouraging, regarding the potential of PLA and mLLDPE as matrices for graphene‐based nanocomposites at higher GO loadings. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 59:1933–1947, 2019. © 2019 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Influence of Graphene Oxide on Thermally Induced Shape Memory Behavior of PLA/TPU Blends: Correlation with Morphology,Creep Behavior,Crystallinity, and Dynamic Mechanical Properties

In this study, shape memory is thermally induced in a series of graphene oxide (GO) filled poly(lactic acid)/thermoplastic polyurethane (PLA/TPU) blends, prepared via melt mixing process, and their shape recovery and shape fixity are measured, and the results are correlated with morphology, dynamic mechanical properties, crystallinity and creep recovery behavior. Morphological analysis by scanning and transmission electron microscopy reveals that the blends are immiscible, and GO platelets are mainly localized in the TPU phase of the blends, which lead to smaller and more elongated TPU droplets with improved interfacial adhesion being responsible for the improved shape recovery performance compared to the unfilled blend. A systematic enhancement found in storage and Young's modulus, tensile strength, creep resistance and creep recovery, and cold crystallinity as a result of GO inclusion are in agreement with the improved shape recovery, shape fixity and overall shape memory performance of the filled systems. The developed PLA/TPU/GO nanocomposites with highly improved mechanical properties can be utilized as a new class of environmentally friendly shape memory materials for a broad range of applications.     

Preparation and properties of novel poly(propylene oxide)‐block‐polylactide‐based polyurethane foams

A novel degradable flexible polyurethane (PU) foam was prepared by varying the ratio of poly(propylene oxide) (PPO) and triarm poly(propylene oxide)‐block‐polylactide copolymer (PPO‐b‐PLA), and was compared with conventional PU foams based on toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and PPO. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that introducing PLA segments were able to result in a transition from a microphase separated state to a microphase mixed state and improve the microphase mixing. The changes in structure and domain size distribution associated with this transition were found to have led to enhanced mechanical properties such as the tensile strength, the elongation at break, and the rebound resilience for the PU foams containing PLA segments. Furthermore, it was observed that the network structure was destroyed by hydrolytic degradation in alkali solution (10 wt%/vol%) at 80°C for 50 h, and that as the PLA content increased, the degradation rate of PU foams enhanced. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2013. © 2012 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Fabrication of novel polyethersulfone based nanofiltration membrane by embedding polyaniline-co-graphene oxide nanoplates

Mixed matrix polyethersulfone (PES) based nanofiltration membrane was prepared through phase inversion method by using of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as pore former and N, N dimethylacetamide (DMAc) as solvent. Polyaniline-co-graphene oxide nanoplates (PANI/GO) were utilized as additive in membrane fabrication. The PANI/GO nanoplates were prepared by polymerization of aniline in the presence of graphene oxide nanoplates. FTIR analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), scanning optical microscopy (SOM), 3D images surface analysis, water contact angle, water content tests, tensile strength tests, porosity tests, salt rejection and flux tests were used in membrane characterization. FT-IR results verified formation of PANI on graphene oxide nanoplates. SOM images showed uniform particles distribution for the mixed matrix membranes. SEM images also showed formation of wide pores for the modified membranes. Water flux showed constant trend nearly by use of PANI/GO in the casting solution. Opposite trend was found for the membrane surface hydrophilicity. Salt rejection was enhanced sharply by utilizing of PANI/GO. The membrane’s tensile strength was improved by increase of PANI/GO concentration. The water content was increased initially by use of PANI/GO nanoplates up to 0.05%wt into the casting solution and then decreased. Membrane porosity was also enhanced by using of PANI/GO nanoplates. Modified membrane containing 0.5%wt PANI/GO nanoplates showed more appropriate antifouling characteristic compared to others.