Stimulus dimensionality effects in mental rotation

Do 3-dimensional (3-D) figures require more time to rotate mentally than do 2-dimensional (2-D) figures? This question was examined in 2 experiments incorporating 15 2-D and 15 3-D stimuli. For 3-D stimuli, block figures were used of the type used by R. N. Shepard and J. Metzler in their classic studies. For 2-D stimuli, block figures were also used, but with all cubes in a single plane, resulting in 2-D and 3-D figures matched on surface features. Three-D figures elicited steeper slopes than did 2-D figures, supporting the view that the mental rotation of visual representations is sensitive to stimulus dimensionality. The authors summarize the results of several mental rotation studies that investigated stimulus dimensionality and suggest that the evidence across studies is consistent with the present finding. They discuss 2 plausible loci for the dimensionality effect in S. M. Kosslyn's (1980) theory of mental imagery.     

Reference frames in mental rotation.

Four experiments are reported that investigate whether images or reference frames are transformed during a mental rotation task. In all experiments a display of four identical letters (P1) was presented at either +90° or –90° from upright, and subjects had to decide whether the letters were normal or mirror-image reflections. A single letter (P2) was then presented 100 ms later in a variable orientation with the same task instructions. Reaction times to P2 were assessed to determine whether an image of P2 was rotated to upright or whether an internal reference frame was rotated into congruence with P2 from the orientation of P1. The results as a whole suggest that transformations of P2 can be initiated either relative to upright or relative to the orientation of P1. They further indicate that the probability of using each reference orientation can be changed by procedural variations. The findings are most parsimoniously interpreted as suggesting that mental rotation involves the transformation of reference frames rather than the transformation of template-like representations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term memory and mental rotation.

Performance of 45 undergraduates on a long-term memory mental rotation paradigm was investigated in 5 experiments and compared with performance in a standard (simultaneous presentation) short-term paradigm. Two related findings emerged: (a) a substantial reduction in RT slope in a "memory" version of the "mental rotation" paradigm and (b) evidence from "fold point" analyses to suggest individualized strategies by Ss in the memory condition. Both of these findings have theoretical and methodological relevance to questions about the interplay of theory and methodology in this research area. (French abstract) (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential effects in judgment.

The absolute judgment of a stimulus is often affected by the particular order of presentation of the preceding stimuli. The scale of judgment is anchored by the 2 extreme stimuli, dampening these sequential effects except when the range is extended or when conditions favor shifts in the remembered values of the extreme stimuli. An experimental situation was developed to create the latter conditions. Successive identifications were required for long, randomized sequences of the same 2 stimuli. The sequential effects obtained in this situation were used to evaluate alternative adaptation-level (AL) models, involving the simplest interpretations of the theory and also special assumptions about anchoring by extreme stimuli. This work illustrates a direction for further development of the AL theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential effects in magnitude scaling: Models and theory.

Research on sequential effects in magnitude scaling is reviewed, and its implications about the adequacy of current time series regression models is discussed. A regression model that unifies what at first appears to be contradictory results is proposed. Theoretical models of judgment and perception are introduced, and their relation to alternative regression models is clarified. A theoretical model of relative judgment that clarifies the role of judgmental error and frames of reference in magnitude scaling is examined in detail. Four experiments that test the model are presented. The results, along with recent results presented by L. M. Ward (see record 1987-24003-001) provide support for the model. The importance of being explicit about the relation of theoretical models to regression models and about the role of error in these models is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential effects in number comparison.

The modular framework of number processing (e.g., S. Dehaene & R. Akhavein, 1995) was applied to study sequential trial-to-trial effects in a number comparison task. In Experiment 1, numbers were always presented as digits. Responses were faster when the same number was repeated, but this effect was additive with the numerical distance effect. In Experiment 2, numbers were presented either as digits or as words. The authors found significant effects of repeating (a) the same physical stimulus, (b) the same number but in a different notation, and (c) the same notation but a different number. Again, all 3 effects were additive with the numerical distance effect. The authors' results provide strong evidence against accounts according to which, on stimulus repetition trials, the comparison stage is bypassed (as proposed by S. Dehaene, 1996), and the results clearly favor an early, precomparison locus of repetition effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between mental rotation and representational momentum.

Two experiments explored a possible relationship between mental rotation and representational momentum, a task in which participants were asked to remember an object's position following a sequence of images implying motion. Typically, participants misremember the position as distorted forward along the implied trajectory. If representational momentum relies on mental imagery, the magnitude of memory distortion in a representational momentum task should be positively correlated with the rate of mental rotation. As predicted, faster mental rotation rates and larger memory distortions for object position were observed for rotational axes aligned with the viewers' coordinate system. In addition, participants with slower mental rotation rates produced smaller memory distortions in the implied-event task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in the speed of mental rotation.

66 Ss in 4 age groups (mean ages 20.9, 32.4, 50.9, and 63.3 yrs) participated in a mental rotation task for 4 consecutive days. ANOVAs revealed significant age differences in the linear function relating median RT to degrees of rotation: Older Ss had higher intercepts and higher slopes. There were no significant age differences in error rates. Practice reduced slopes and intercepts for all groups, but it neither eliminated nor systematically reduced age differences in mental rotation performance. Mental rotation slopes and intercepts were significantly correlated with performance on the Figures subtest of the Primary Mental Abilities Test but not the Vocabulary subtest of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test. Results point toward age changes in the speed of spatial information processing that may contribute to age changes in performance on tests of spatial ability. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential effects in naming: A time-criterion account.

S. J. Lupker, P. Brown, and L. Colombo (see record 1997-06206-004) reported that target naming latencies are strongly affected by the difficulty of the other stimuli in a trial block, an effect they attributed to readers' strategic use of a time criterion to guide responding. In the present research, the authors asked whether there are also trial-by-trial ("sequential") effects by examining naming latency as a function of the difficulty of the preceding stimulus. In Experiment 1, both nonwords and high-frequency regular words were named more rapidly following a word than a nonword. Experiments 2, 3, and 4 were parallel experiments involving a variety of stimulus types (e.g., high- and low--frequency inconsistent words, easy and hard nonwords). In all cases, similar sequential effects were observed (i.e., all stimulus types had shorter latencies following an easier-to-name than a harder-to-name stimulus). In terms of the time-criterion account, criterion placement appears to be affected by the relative difficulty of the preceding stimulus in a way that is independent of stimulus type. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A rotation aftereffect changes both the speed and the preferred direction of mental rotation.

Three experiments are reported that replicate and extend the finding of M. C. Corballis and R. McLaren (1982) regarding the interaction between mental rotation and the rotation aftereffect. In Experiment 1, participants saw tilted characters and made the usual parity judgment. In Experiment 2, participants were explicitly instructed to rotate the characters mentally into one direction or the other. In Experiment 3, participants had to report the direction into which they had mentally rotated. In all experiments, the function relating RT to the rotational angle was influenced by the aftereffect. RT was accelerated if the mental rotation was congruent with the aftereffect and decelerated if it was incongruent. A strategic change of direction of the mental rotation accounted only for some portion of this effect. The major portion has to be attributed to a direct interaction of two movements. The data suggest that the speed of the aftereffect combines with the speed of the mental rotation and, therefore, that imagery and perception share 1 representational medium. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential judgement effects in magnitude estimation.

Examined response dependencies in magnitude estimation for different line lengths and different numbers of dots on slides, using 80 undergraduates. Size was varied in equal logarithmic intervals. Residual measures were computed as the deviation of a response to a stimulus from the average of all responses to that stimulus and Ss' residual scores were positively correlated. It is suggested that Ss changed the unit of their numerical estimates during the judgment sequence. Results contradict the findings of L. M. Ward (see record 1980-27015-001). (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive coordinate systems: Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability.

Contends that strategic differences in spatial tasks can be explained in terms of different cognitive coordinate systems that Ss adopt. The strategy of mental rotation featured in many recent experiments uses a coordinate system defined by the standard axes of the human visual world (i.e., horizontal, vertical, and depth axes). Several other possible coordinate systems for solving the problems that occur in psychometric tests of spatial ability are examined. One alternative strategy uses a coordinate system defined by the demands of each test item, resulting in mental rotation around arbitrary, task-defined axes. Another strategy uses a coordinate system defined exclusively by the objects, producing representations invariant with the objects' orientation. Three experiments with 31 university students were conducted to assess differences in strategies used by Ss with high or low spatial ability in cube comparison and Shepard-Metzler (R. Shepard and J. Metzler; see record 1972-28060-001) rotation tasks. Two computer simulation models based on Ss' performance patterns are described. It is suggested that Ss high in spatial ability are faster in their manipulation processes and more flexible in adopting cognitive coordinate systems than their low-ability counterparts. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A hemispheric division of labor aids mental rotation.

In the present study, we investigated whether a hemispheric division of labor is most advantageous to performance when lateralized inputs place unequal resource demands on the left and right cerebral hemispheres. In each trial, participants decided whether 2 rotated letters, presented either in the same visual field (within-field trials) or in opposite visual fields (across-field trials), were both of normal orientation, or whether one was normal and the other was mirror-reversed. To discriminate a letter's orientation, one must rotate the letter to the upright position. Therefore, we manipulated whether the two letters imposed similar or dissimilar demands on cognitive resources by varying the number of degrees that each letter needed to be rotated to reach the upright position. As predicted, in 2 experiments we found that the across-field advantage increased as the number of degrees each letter needed to be rotated became more dissimilar. These findings support a current model of hemispheric interactions, which posits that an unequal hemispheric distribution of cognitive load allows the cerebral hemispheres to take the lead for different aspects of cognitive processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential and coordinative complexity in time–accuracy functions for mental arithmetic.

Time–accuracy functions for tasks involving single-digit mental addition and subtraction were derived in a sample of 18 younger (mean age?=?21.7 years) and 16 older adults (mean age?=?68.8 years). Sequential complexity was manipulated by varying the number of operations (5 vs. 10); coordinative complexity was induced by bracketing. Age differences were apparent in the coordinative conditions, even though no age difference was present in the sequential conditions. This indicates that the age difference under conditions of high coordinative demands could not be attributed solely to a decline in basic speed of processing. The Age?×?Complexity interaction was due to larger onset times and lower asymptotic performance by the older adults in the coordinative conditions but not due to to rate of approach to the asymptote. This implies that coordinative demands do not differentially hurt access from semantic memory in older adults; however, coordinative demands do have disproportionately negative consequences for computation speed and self-monitoring in older adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential effects in pigeon delayed matching-to-sample performance.

Five pigeons were tested in a 3-alternative delayed matching-to-sample task in which 2nd choices were permitted following 1st-choice errors. Sequences of responses both within and between trials were examined in 3 experiments. In Exp I, the sample information contained in 1st-choice errors was not sufficient to account for the observed pattern of 2nd choices. This implies that 2nd choices following 1st-choice errors are based on a 2nd examination of the contents of working memory. Proactive interference was found in Exp II in the form of a dependency, beyond that expected on the basis of trial-independent response bias, of 1st-choices from 1 trial on the 1st-choice emitted on the previous trial. Samples from the previous trial did not exert a significant influence on later trials. The magnitude of the intertrial association (Exp III) did not depend on the duration of the intertrial interval. In contrast, longer intertrial intervals and longer sample durations facilitated choice accuracy by strengthening the association between current samples and choices. Results are incompatible with a trace-decay and completion model; they suggest that multiple influences act simultaneously and independently to control delayed matching-to-sample responding. These influences include memory for the choice occurring on the previous trial, memory for the sample, and general effects of trial spacing. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The roles of stimulus-response compatibility and mental rotation in mirror-image and left-right decisions.

Examined the relative roles of mental rotation and stimulus-response (SR) compatibility in mirror-image and left-right decisions. 15 Ss, aged 19–43 yrs, were shown rotated letters and asked to indicate whether the letters were normal or backward (mirror-image task). Ss were then asked whether a dot would be located to the left or right of each letter if the letter was upright (viewer-centered left-right task) or if the letter was both upright and normal (letter-centered left-right task). The functions relating reaction time (RT) to angular orientation were parallel across the 3 tasks, suggesting that SR compatibility played no role, and that the Ss mentally rotated the letters to the upright in each case. A marked increase in RT to backward letters in the letter-centered task suggested a 2nd rotation in depth to restore the letters to normal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Costs and effects in mental health policy.

Argues that C. A. Kiesler (see record 1982-31029-001) inadvertently overstates the expense of institutionalization in present mental health policy and hence overestimates the relative fiscal viability of alternative care. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rotation of mental images and asymmetries in word recognition in disabled readers.

Two experiments with 72 right-handed children (9–11 yrs old) revealed marked dissimilarities in perceptual coding between impaired and fluent readers. In Exp I, 26 boys with reading disabilities and average intelligence were compared to 26 good readers on a test of visual–spatial, short-term memory. Both groups performed equally well in their spatial recall on transformed visual fields. However, poor readers coded the test stimuli differently, in a nonanalytic and synchronous fashion. In a follow-up experiment, 10 disabled readers compared with 10 good readers showed a lower right- over left-field advantage when reporting single words presented tachistoscopically. Taken together, results disconfirm the widely held ideas that poor readers are suffering from spatial disorientation, left–right confusion, mirror-image equivalence, or lack of cerebral dominance. Findings suggest that the perceptual "anormalies" often linked with reading disability may result from nonpathological variations in the structural operations used to encode visual information. This difference in the organization of encodings in visual memory may be related to asymmetries in brain functioning. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential effects in lexical decision: Tests of compound-cue retrieval theory.

According to compound-cue retrieval theories, responses in lexical decision are determined by a passive process that matches a compound of the items in short-term memory against all of the information in long-term memory. Because responses depend on other items in short-term memory in addition to the target item about which a lexical decision is required, compound-cue theories must predict sequential effects and priming effects. For example, a nonword preceding a target should slow responses to the target, and a prime word related to a target word can affect responses to the target even when another item intervenes between them. In this article, the results of 4 experiments are presented and sequential effects are shown to be in accord with compound-cue theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)