Enhancement of conjunctive concept attainment in older adults.

Studied 30 community-dwelling females (mean age, 71.4 yrs) to determine whether older adults' performance on a complex concept identification task could be enhanced through training designed to promote the use of a specific problem-solving strategy. Ss were assigned to 1 of 3 groups (training, practice, or control) and were tested individually on the pretest problem followed by the posttest problem 4 days later, with the relevant dimensions used in these problems counterbalanced. Ss were given detailed instructions on all facets of the task. Stimulus cards were presented one at a time, with as much time as needed for response. Ss in the control condition were given only the pre- and posttest problems. The training and practice groups all received 3 additional sessions. Statistical analysis on transformed trials to criterion showed significant main effects due to treatment. The substantially enhanced performance of the trained Ss indicates that a training procedure combining operant and cumulative learning hierarchy principles effectively promoted elderly Ss' use of an appropriate bidimensional conjunctive concept identification strategy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal-directed guidance of attention: Evidence from conjunctive visual search.

Conjunctive visual search is most difficult when distractor types are in equal proportions and gets easier as the proportions diverge (e.g., E. Zohary & S. Hochstein, 1989). This may reflect restriction of search to the feature shared by the target and the less-frequent distractor. Alternatively, such effects could reflect target salience, which varies with distractor ratio. In 2 experiments, 60 participants searched 64-element displays for a conjunctive target among distractors of 2 types in various proportions. Participants were correctly informed (Experiment 1) or misinformed (Experiment 2) about which distractor type would be less frequent on most trials. In both experiments, the distractor-ratio effect was significantly influenced by the information provided to participants. These findings demonstrate the efficacy of top-down information in guiding attention and show that it can be applied flexibly, weighted toward particular target features. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conjunctions of visually based categories: Overextension and compensation.

The degree to which overextension effects found with conjunctions of semantic categories of visual stimuli was tested in 4 experiments. Overextension occurs when participants categorize a stimulus in the conjunction of 2 categories but fail to categorize the same stimulus as belonging to 1 of the 2 constituent categories considered individually. Stimuli for the present experiments were ambiguous colored letter shapes and cartoon faces that could vary along dimensions of happiness and either apparent intelligence or apparent age. Overextension was found with both stimulus sets, thus showing that the phenomenon is not restricted to categorization in superordinate semantic categories. There was also evidence that typicality in 1 category could compensate for borderline membership of the other. More overextension was found for faces than for letters, and there was evidence for asymmetric compensation between category dimensions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance model analysis in class inclusion: An illustration with two language conditions.

Traditional means of evaluating ability in class inclusion do not take account of the effects of guessing on performance. A new analysis of response patterns rectifies this problem. Strategic components of performance are estimated on the basis of the differential consequences of inclusion logic, comparison of the subclasses, and guessing. The importance of this analysis is demonstrated by a study with two language conditions. The 32 children in each of four age groups (4, 5, 6, and 8 years) were randomly assigned to either the standard Piagetian condition or to a reduced-language condition in which visual symbols were used to represent the classes. The 4-year-olds gave fewer correct answers in the standard than in the reduced-language condition (p?     

Structural dynamism in the concept of self: A flexible model for a malleable concept.

The self-concept is theorized to play an important role in many psychological processes. Numerous theories rest on assumptions concerning the differential accessibility of pieces of self-knowledge, but relatively little attention during the past decade has centered on examining the underlying structure of the self-concept that mediates such differences. In the present article, we suggest a new model of the self-concept that incorporates recent advances in knowledge regarding conceptual structure. We envision the self as a representation in working memory with inherently flexible content and organization. Initial empirical evidence supporting this view is reviewed and followed by a discussion of the implications of this model for many phenomena involving the self-concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence for a dual-factor concept of psychopathological emotional deficit: anhedonia and sensation-seeking

Correlations between measures of anhedonia and sensation-seeking were calculated in two psychiatric samples. The correlations indicated that, despite their conceptual similarity, the two represent different motivational deficits. Ther correlates appeared to indicate that sensation-seeking represents neurotic inhibition, while anhedonia reflects a separate motivational deficit apparently characteristic of process schizophrenics.     

Self-discrepancies and persecutory delusions: Evidence for a model of paranoid ideation.

The self-discrepancies of paranoid patients, depressed patients, and nonpatients were examined using a modified version of Higgins's Selves Questionnaire (E. T. Higgins, 1987). Nonpatients showed high consistencies between all domains of the self-concept, whereas depressed patients showed marked self-discrepancies. Paranoid patients alone displayed a high degree of consistency between self-perceptions and self-guides together with discrepancies between self-perceptions and the believed perceptions of parents about the self. Paranoid patients also believed that their parents had more negative views of them than did other participants. These findings are consistent with R. P. Bentall, P. Kinderman, and S. Kaney's (1994) model, which assumes that persecutory delusions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Combining graded categories: Membership and typicality.

Forming a conjoint category (square tables) from constituent categories (squares and tables) has traditionally been remodeled by formal set intersection. In this traditional view, in which categories are treated as precisely defined sets, an item is a member of the conjoint category if and only if it is a member of both constituent categories. However, as is now widely believed, many categories should be treated as graded, with members that vary in typicality and boundaries that are inexact. In the present article, it is argued that set intersection is inappropriate for combining graded categories. The authors propose an alternative formal mechanism in which a conjoint category is constructed from constituent categories by forming a joint distribution of values. The proposed model accounts for both membership and typicality of instances in conjoint categories, but only when the constituent categories are independent, or the relation between them is known. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Modeling class inclusion strategies": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by Hoben Thomas (Developmental Psychology, 1995[Mar], Vol 31[2], 170–279). On page 174, there were errors in Table 3; a corrected version of the table is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 82:24623.) B. Hodkin (see record 1988-01105-001) proposed a model for estimating the proportions of 3 possible solution strategies used by children in their responses to class inclusion items: guessing, subclass comparison, and inclusion logic. The model considers guessing, which if not modeled would result in estimates of young children's class inclusion understanding that would be seriously inflated as she demonstrated. However, the model assumes children are consistent in their task strategy. Hodkin's data suggest this assumption is incorrect; moreover, changes in task strategies that occur with development are not revealed by her model. A more general model, of which Hodkin's model is a special case, reveals that the youngest children's responses display mixed response strategies. The results illustrate the need to consider richer models that allow for assessing model parameter estimates and their variances are provided for both models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital functioning and depressive symptoms: Evidence for a stress generation model.

The present study applied C. L. Hammen's (1991) stress generation model to depressive symptoms in the context of marriage. The authors predicted that depressive symptoms would lead to increased marital stress, which would in turn lead to increased depressive symptoms. Social support processes were hypothesized to function as a mechanism by which dysphoric spouses generate stress. Hypotheses were tested in a sample of 154 newlywed couples. Depressive symptoms, marital stress, support perceptions, and support behavior (assessed using observational procedures) were assessed initially and 1 year later. Results provided evidence of marital stress generation among wives, and social support processes functioned as a mechanism of stress generation for wives. Results highlight the cyclical course of dysphoria and stress among wives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Programming of endogenous and exogenous saccades: Evidence for a competitive integration model.

Participants were required to make a saccade to a uniquely colored target while ignoring the presentation of an onset distractor. The results provide evidence for a competitive integration model of saccade programming that assumes endogenous and exogenous saccades are programmed in a common saccade map. The model incorporates a lateral interaction structure in which saccade-related activation at a specific location spreads to neighboring locations but inhibits distant locations. In addition, there is top-down, location-specific inhibition of locations to which the saccade should not go. The time course of exogenous and endogenous activation in the saccade map can explain a variety of eye movement data, including endpoints, latencies, and trajectories of saccades and the well-known global effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactive and proactive aggression: Evidence of a two-factor model.

This article examines the construct validity of reactive and proactive aggression, as assessed by the teacher-rating scale developed by K. A. Dodge and J. D. Coie (1987). In Study 1 (n?=?149 boys), confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a 2-factor model, in which a substantial correlation was observed between the 2 latent factors, presented a better fit than a single-factor model. Study 2 (n?=?193 boys) examined the relations presented by the 2 forms of aggression with peer status, leadership, social withdrawal, and victimization by peer. Reactive and proactive aggressive behaviors presented distinct patterns of relations consistent with the theoretical definitions. The results of these studies suggest that the questionnaire measures 2 forms of aggressive behavior that, although being substantially related, have a unique discriminant dimension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition memory: Evidence for a dual-process model.

Evidence is presented that recognition judgments are based on an assessment of familiarity, as is described by signal detection theory, but that a separate recollection process also contributes to performance. In 3 receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) experiments, the process dissociation procedure was used to examine the contribution of these processes to recognition memory. In Exps 1 and 2, reducing the length of the study list increased the intercept (d') but decreased the slope of the ROC and increased the probability of recollection but left familiarity relatively unaffected. In Exp 3, increasing study time increased the intercept but left the slope of the ROC unaffected and increased both recollection and familiarity. In all 3 experiments, judgments based on familiarity produced a symmetrical ROC (slope?=?1), but recollection introduced a skew such that the slope of the ROC decreased. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competency criteria and the class inclusion task: modeling judgements and justifications.

Preschool age children's class inclusion task responses were modeled as mixtures of different probability distributions. The main idea: Different response strategies are equivalent to different probability distributions. A child displays cognitive strategy s if P(child uses strategy s, given the child's observed score X?=?x)?=?ps is the most probable strategy. The general approach is widely applicable to many settings. Both judgment and justification questions were asked. Judgment response strategies identified were subclass comparison, guessing, and inclusion logic. Children's justifications lagged their judgments in development. Although justification responses may be useful, C. J. Brainerd was largely correct: If a single response variable is to be selected, a judgments variable is likely the preferable one. But the process must be modeled to identify cognitive strategies, as B. Hodkin has demonstrated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychopathy as a taxon: Evidence that psychopaths are a discrete class.

Taxometric analyses were applied to the construct of psychopathy (as measured by the Psychopathy Checklist) and to several variables reflecting antisocial childhood, adult criminality, and criminal recidivis. Ss were 653 serious offenders assessed or treated in a maximum-security institution. Results supported the existence of a taxon underlying psychopathy. Childhood problem behaviors provided convergent evidence for the existence of the taxon. Adult criminal history variables were continuously distributed and were insufficient in themselves to detect the taxon. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of inhibition during childhood: Evidence for situational specificity and a two-factor model.

The inhibition of 99 children was observed from the start of preschool through Grade 1 in multiple settings: adult strangers, dyadic play with unfamiliar and familiar peers, and regular free play in class. A multisetting–multimethod–multioccasion analysis revealed (a) a high longitudinal stability of inhibition toward strangers and a medium stability of inhibition in class, (b) a decreasing consistency between inhibition in class and inhibition toward strangers, (c) an increasing consistency between inhibition in class and being ignored or rejected by classmates, and (d) no detrimental effect of children's inhibition toward strangers on their dyadic play with familiar peers. These results are discussed in terms of a 2-factor model of inhibition that is linked to J. A. Gray's (1982; see also PA, Vol 75:35718) concept of the behavioral inhibition system. It is assumed that both unfamiliarity and social–evaluative concerns contribute to individual differences in inhibition in childhood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family conflict and child adjustment: Evidence for a cognitive-contextual model of intergenerational transmission.

Three cohorts of 10- to 14-year-old adolescents were sampled to obtain perceptions of their parents' conflict-resolution styles, their own conflict-resolution styles, and their behavioral adjustment, to test J. H. Grych and F. D. Fincham's (1990) cognitive-contextual model of the relationship of marital conflict to child adjustment. As found previously, boys and girls were not exposed to different levels or types of interparental conflict, although boys tended to blame themselves more. Adolescents' reports of their own conflict-resolution styles with siblings were clearly related to level and types of their more general adjustment levels. A series of regressions supported Grych and Fincham's model for internalizing problems (and avoidant resolution style) in adolescents; only minimal support was found with externalizing problems (and attacking resolution style). Gender-specific patterns of intergenerational transmission of resolution styles were found and are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond competence and performance: Children's class inclusion strategies, superordinate class cues, and verbal justifications.

72 children (aged 4–10 yrs) were given 2 class inclusion tasks in which the superordinate class was perceptually and linguistically marked or unmarked. A minor subclass question was also asked in order to estimate the rates of children's underlying solution strategies. Results indicated that (1) the performance of 4–6 yr olds was inflated by guessing, (2) scores were higher in the marked task as compared with the unmarked task because of different rates of inclusion logic, and (3) children's verbal justifications closely approximated their estimated true competence, contrary to common assumptions. The conclusion is drawn that the relation between verbal justification and intrapsychic inference is an important theoretical issue, not merely a question of measurement validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem-solving appraisal, hopelessness, and suicide ideation: Evidence for a mediational model.

Extended the research on D. E. Schotte and G. Clum's (see PA, Vols 69:1287 and 74:15906, respectively) theory of suicidal behavior using structural equation modeling involving latent variables to evaluate whether the construct of hopelessness mediates between the constructs of problem-solving appraisal and suicide ideation (SI). Participants in the study were 217 individuals in an intensive outpatient program targeting suicidal behavior in young adults. Results indicated a significant direct effect for hopelessness in predicting suicide ideation. Consistent with the mediational hypothesis, the results also indicated a significant indirect effect for problem-solving appraisal (through its impact on hopelessness) in predicting SI. Results not only replicate but also extend previous research by testing theory and increase the field's conceptualization of SI and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characterizing cavities in model inclusion molecules: a comparative study

We have selected fullerene-60 and -70 cavities as model systems in order to test several methods for characterizing inclusion molecules. The methods are based on different technical foundations such as a square and triangular tessellation of the molecule taken as a unitary sphere, spherical tessellation of the molecular surface, numerical integration of the atomic volumes and surfaces, triangular tessellation of the molecular surface, and a cubic lattice approach to a molecular space. Accurate measures of the molecular volume and surface area have been performed with the pseudo-random Monte Carlo (MCVS) and uniform Monte Carlo (UMCVS) methods. These calculations serve as a reference for the rest of the methods. The SURMO2 and MS methods have not recognized the cavities and may not be convenient for intercalation compounds. The programs that have detected the cavities never exceed 5% deviation relative to the reference values for molecular volume and surface area. The GEPOL algorithm, alone or combined with TOPO, shows results in good agreement with those of the UMCVS reference. The uniform random number generator provides the fastest convergence for UMCVS and a correct estimate of the standard deviations. The effect of the internal cavity on the accessible surfaces has been calculated.