我国发展智能电网初探

智能电网对推动社会经济发展具有战略意义。我国发展的是坚强智能电网,具有坚强可靠、经济高效、清洁环保、透明开放、友好互动的特点。建设智能电网具有良好的社会效益和经济效益,可以调整我国区域能源不平衡的问题,为我国能源结构调整提供支持,促进各种电网相关技术全面升级,加速产业结构调整,实现对化石能源的替代。同时可以降低电网企业的运营及建设成本,减少发电装机投资和发电环节运营成本。坚强智能电网所使用的特高压输电具有远距离、大容量和低损耗的优势。预计到2020年,建设运行智能电网实现的节能量相当于减少社会能源投入约1392亿元,并可实现减排二氧化碳约13.8×108t。我国已在与智能电网发展相关的清洁能源技术、电网储能技术、输配电技术、用电技术、信息通信技术及标准与规范等方面取得了一定的技术成果,但仍面临许多问题。需要政府在重大科技项目立项、电网项目核准、电价、资金政策和标准制定方面给予支持;并应尽快启动智能电网框架设计,建立完善标准规范体系;政府应根据电力市场的垄断状况,制定出适合我国智能电网发展的投资及控股制度。     

从标准看智能电网的发展

目前世界各国在什么是智能电网、如何推进智能电网的发展等方面并没有达成一致意见。美国设想的未来电力系统是一个完全自动化的电力传输网络,能够保证从电厂到终端用户整个输配电过程中所有节点之间的信息和电能的双向流动。欧洲智能电网技术平台的目标是提高输配电系统的效率、安全性和可靠性,消除大规模集成配网与可再生能源的障碍。日本将主要以大规模开发太阳能等新能源、确保电网系统稳定作为智能电网建设的主要思路。结合中国的实际情况,我国智能电网业务框架应包含发电、输变电、配电、用户、运行、服务提供者、电力市场及统一信息平台等8个领域。现有标准与智能电网之间存在差距,主要体现在需求响应和电力市场、广域状态测量、电力存储、电力传输、AMI系统、配网管理等6个方面。其中,一部分差距已经有了清晰的发展方向和解决思路;而另一部分的具体发展方向和解决思路尚不明确。智能电网相关标准的开发需要以具体项目实施为载体,标准体系是否完备需要通过具体项目检验和修订,同时具体项目的顺利实施也有赖于标准体系的约束和规范。针对中国某省级电网的特殊性和典型性,建议其智能电网的发展,一是应重点关注标准研究方向,二是由此引出的示范工程项目。     

The research agenda on social acceptance of distributed generation in smart grids: Renewable as common pool resources

The rapid developing literature on ‘smart grids’ suggests that these will facilitate ‘distributed generation’ (DG) preferably from renewable sources. However, the current development of smart (micro)grids with substantial amount of DG (“DisGenMiGrids”) suffers from a focus on mere ‘technology’. Ongoing problems with deployment of renewable energy have shown that implementation is largely determined by broad social acceptance issues. This smart grid development is very important for further renewables deployment, but again there is a tendency to continue the neglect of social determinants.Most technical studies apply implicit and largely unfounded assumptions about the participation in and contribution of actors to DisGenMiGrid systems. This lack of understanding will have severe consequences: smart grids will not further renewables deployment when there are hardly actors that are willing to become part of them. This review is a first attempt to address the social construction of smart electricity grids. As institutional factors have proved to be the main determinants of acceptance, these will also be crucial for further renewables deployment in micro-grid communities. Elaboration of the institutional character of social acceptance and renewables’ innovation calls for an institutional theory approach involving Common Pool Resources management, because these socio-technical systems aim to optimise the exploitation of natural resources. Citizens/consumers and other end-users increasingly have the option to become more self-sufficient by becoming co-producers of electricity.They may optimise the contribution of DG when they cooperate and insert their renewable energy in a cooperative microgrid with mutual delivery. Moreover, the option to include ‘distributed storage’ capacity (electric vehicles) in these microgrids, enables an increasing share of renewables deployment. However, all these options should be institutionally opened. This requires much self-governance and flexible overall regulation that allows microgrids.The research agenda should focus on how such new systems become institutionally embedded, and how they are socially constructed.     

Review of barriers to the introduction of residential demand response: a case study in the Netherlands

Demand response, defined as the shifting of electricity demand, is generally believed to have value both for the grid and for the market: by matching demand more closely to supply, consumers could profit from lower prices, while in a smart grid environment, more renewable electricity can be used and less grid capacity may be needed. However, the introduction of residential demand response programmes to support the development of smart grids that includes renewable generation is hampered by a number of barriers. This paper reviews these barriers and categorises them for different demand programmes and market players. The case study for the Netherlands shows that barriers can be country specific. Two types of demand response programmes have been identified as being the most promising options for households in smart grids: price‐based demand response and direct load control, while they may not be beneficial for market players or distribution system operators. © 2016 The Authors. International Journal of Energy Research Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

试论中国智能电网的发展

智能电网是未来电网发展的方向,我国发展智能电网也是大势所趋。智能电网并没有公认的统一定义,中国电力科学研究院将其定义为以物理电网为基础,将现代先进的传感测量技术、通讯技术、信息技术、计算机技术和控制技术与物理电网高度集成而形成的新型电网。由于是新世纪以来出现的新生事物,因此中国与其他发达国家相对处于一个公平的起跑线上。在中国发展智能电网具有较好的社会氛围和扎实的软硬基础,我国特高压交直流输电示范工程、智能电网试点工程等也进展顺利,而且发展智能电网还能起到显著的产业带动作用。中国智能电网的发展一直紧跟世界前沿,并形成了独具特色的中国模式。今后应进一步做好智能电网规划;加大科技攻关力度,做好技术创新和储备;加强标准体系建设,引导产业发展,积极参与国际竞争;加强资金投入,积极研发有竞争力的产品。     

Impact of charging efficiency variations on the effectiveness of variable-rate-based charging strategies for electric vehicles

The huge energy demand coming from the increasing diffusion of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) poses a significant challenge to electricity utilities and vehicle manufacturers in developing smart charging systems interacting in real time with distribution grids.These systems will have to implement smart charging strategies for PEV batteries on the basis of negotiation phases between the user and the electric utility regarding information about battery chemistries, tariffs, required energy and time available for completing the charging. Strategies which adapt the charging current to grid load conditions are very attractive. Indeed, they allow full exploitation of the grid capacity, with a consequent greater final state of charge and higher utility financial profits with respect to approaches based on a fixed charging rate.The paper demonstrates that the charging current should be chosen also taking into account the effect that different charging rates may have on the charging efficiency. To this aim, the performances of two smart variable-rate-based charging strategies, taken as examples, are compared by considering possible realistic relationships between the charging efficiency and the charging rate. The analysis gives useful guidelines for the development of smart charging strategies for PEVs as well as for next-generation battery charging and smart grid management systems.     

The optimization of demand response programs in smart grids

The potential to schedule portion of the electricity demand in smart energy systems is clear as a significant opportunity to enhance the efficiency of the grids. Demand response is one of the new developments in the field of electricity which is meant to engage consumers in improving the energy consumption pattern. We used Teaching & Learning based Optimization (TLBO) and Shuffled Frog Leaping (SFL) algorithms to propose an optimization model for consumption scheduling in smart grid when payment costs of different periods are reduced. This study conducted on four types residential consumers obtained in the summer for some residential houses located in the centre of Tehran city in Iran: first with time of use pricing, second with real-time pricing, third one with critical peak pricing, and the last consumer had no tariff for pricing. The results demonstrate that the adoption of demand response programs can reduce total payment costs and determine a more efficient use of optimization techniques.     

Large-scale integration of renewable and distributed generation of electricity in Spain: Current situation and future needs

Similar to other European countries, mechanisms for the promotion of electricity generation from renewable energy sources (RESs) and combined heat and power (CHP) production have caused a significant growth in distributed generation (DG) in Spain. Low DG/RES penetration levels do not have a major impact on electricity systems. However, several problems arise as DG shares increase. Smarter distribution grids are deemed necessary to facilitate DG/RES integration. This involves modifying the way distribution networks are currently planned and operated. Furthermore, DG and demand should also adopt a more active role. This paper reviews the current situation of DG/RES in Spain including penetration rates, support payments for DG/RES, level of market integration, economic regulation of Distribution System Operators (DSOs), smart metering implementation, grid operation and planning, and incentives for DSO innovation. This paper identifies several improvements that could be made to the treatment of DG/RES. Key aspects of an efficient DG/RES integration are identified and several regulatory changes specific to the Spanish situation are recommended.     

电力工业的储能时代

风电、太阳能发电等新能源的开发利用正迅速发展,由于新能源发电大都具有随机性、间歇性,因而将使电力工业进入储能时代。最近30年来,世界能源领域有3个变化:一是环境问题由区域性问题变成全球性问题;二是因化石能源顶峰论和枯竭论导致化石能源恐慌;三是化石能源价格暴涨。由此把全球能源利用推向第三次能源大转换,用新能源发电替代化石能源发电,并催生了智能电网。电力工业在100多年的历史中,前后经历了舞伴时代、电力需求侧管理时代,现在为了发展新能源和智能电网,电力工业将进入储能时代。中国在最近20年内,无论是在需求侧管理方面还是在需求响应方面的工作都优于工业发达国家,中国电力工业已进入了电力需求侧管理时代。大容量储能是新能源开发的"瓶颈",是智能电网的"瓶颈",要想加快新能源和智能电网的开发,就要把大容量储能放在战略位置上,抓好大容量储能技术的突破。现在技术比较成熟的储能设施是抽水蓄能电站,但是投资大、能量转换损耗大,不可能全靠它来解决大容量储能问题。主要问题还是技术不成熟和政策问题,应加大对大容量储能技术的研究开发力度,在新能源发电规划和智能电网规划中要有相应的大容量储能规划,同时要尽快理顺电价。     

Re-thinking the power transmission model for sub-Saharan Africa

A vision for a United States of Africa has been advocated since the dawn of independence by, among others, pioneers like Kwame Nkrumah, Gamal Abdel Nasser and Julius Nyerere. More recently the idea gained new momentum, through such initiatives as the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) and the African Union (AU) to create a single market of Africa’s 750 million people that is competitive within itself and within the global economy. This would be achieved through a deliberate, systematic and concerted effort to integrate, upgrade and modernize infrastructure that would offer the required catalyst for economic growth. However, the prioritization by African policy makers of a grand plan to link up the entire African continent’s electric power grid networks would appear to be incompatible with 21st century thinking. The specifications for a centrally managed power grid were made by Nicola Tesla in 1883 and have served the power industry for over 125 years but are now obsolete in the era of digital micro-electronics and smart grid concepts. This paper examines some issues that surround the evolution of sub-Sahara African regional power pools and highlights the anomalies and perhaps wrong timing around the conceptualization and prioritization of grand inter-state power grids. The authors then propose an alternative model that conforms to a new and more sustainable paradigm in electricity supply economics. The proposals are however not meant to provide a panacea but it is hoped that the article will ignite a debate that will lead to a lasting solution.     

推进信息化领域的行业融合 促进智能电网发展

针对智能电网融合了电网、通信、IT、新材料等科技成果,指出只有行业高度融合,才能真正建设好智能电网。介绍了电力行业在智能电网方面做的大量工作,提出应加强行业间的交流与融合、提升信息化水平、促进智能电网发展,并给出了相应的建议。     

SmartGrid: Future networks for New Zealand power systems incorporating distributed generation

The concept of intelligent electricity grids, which primarily involves the integration of new information and communication technologies with power transmission lines and distribution cables, is being actively explored in the European Union and the United States. Both developments share common technological developmental goals but also differ distinctly towards the role of distributed generation for their future electrical energy security. This paper looks at options that could find relevance to New Zealand (NZ), in the context of its aspiration of achieving 90% renewable energy electricity generation portfolio by 2025. It also identifies developments in technical standardization and industry investments that facilitate a pathway towards an intelligent or smart grid development for NZ. Some areas where policy can support research in NZ being a “fast adapter” to future grid development are also listed.This paper will help policy makers quickly review developments surrounding SmartGrid and also identify its potential to support NZ Energy Strategy in the electricity infrastructure. This paper will also help researchers and power system stakeholders for identifying international standardization, projects and potential partners in the area of future grid technologies.     

Multicarrier energy systems: Optimization model based on real data and application to a case study

Multicarrier energy systems are increasingly used for a number of applications, among which the supply of electricity, heating, and cooling in buildings. The possibility of switching between different energy sources is a crucial advantage for the optimal fulfillment of the energy demand. The flexibility of these systems can benefit from the integration with smart grids, which have strong variations in time during their operation. The energy price is the parameter that is usually considered, but also the primary energy factor and the greenhouse gases emissions need to be accounted. This paper presents an application of an operational optimization method for a multicarrier energy system, based on real data–driven model and applied to different countries. The generation plant of a hospital is considered as case study, coping with multiple energy needs by relying on different conversion technologies. The optimal operation of the system shows a wide range of variability, depending on the chosen objective function, the hour of the day, the season, and the country. The results are affected mostly by the energy mix of the electricity supplied from the power grid, which has a direct influence on the primary energy consumption and the greenhouse gases emissions and an indirect influence on the electricity prices.     

Photovoltaic power for telecommunications

Photovoltaic equipment may be an attractive power source for many kinds of communication equipment in the next five years. The first applications will be found in remote parts of the U.S. and in new systems installed overseas in areas remote from electric distribution grids. By the end of the 1980s, the equipment may compare favorably with grid electricity in some regions. This paper will discuss the kinds of improvements in equipment performance and manufacturing techniques which may lead to photovoltaic systems capable of competing in the communications industry, and estimate the cost of power which could be obtained if such improvements are achieved. It will review some of the problems of system design which must be confronted in constructing systems capable of meeting realistic demand patterns, and outline a technique for optimizing the size of components.     

Regulatory framework and business models for charging plug-in electric vehicles: Infrastructure,agents, and commercial relationships

Electric vehicles (EVs) present efficiency and environmental advantages over conventional transportation. It is expected that in the next decade this technology will progressively penetrate the market. The integration of plug-in electric vehicles in electric power systems poses new challenges in terms of regulation and business models. This paper proposes a conceptual regulatory framework for charging EVs. Two new electricity market agents, the EV charging manager and the EV aggregator, in charge of developing charging infrastructure and providing charging services are introduced. According to that, several charging modes such as EV home charging, public charging on streets, and dedicated charging stations are formulated. Involved market agents and their commercial relationships are analysed in detail. The paper elaborates the opportunities to formulate more sophisticated business models for vehicle-to-grid applications under which the storage capability of EV batteries is used for providing peak power or frequency regulation to support the power system operation. Finally penetration phase dependent policy and regulatory recommendations are given concerning time-of-use pricing, smart meter deployment, stable and simple regulation for reselling energy on private property, roll-out of public charging infrastructure as well as reviewing of grid codes and operational system procedures for interactions between network operators and vehicle aggregators.     

A smarter plan? A policy comparison between Great Britain and Ireland's deployment strategies for rolling out new metering technologies

The Irish and British governments have recently mandated the replacement of domestic gas and electricity meters with smart meters. Their deployment strategies differ based on the extent to which deregulation of the gas and electricity market has been successful. A broad debate has been held on the various assumptions justifying the cost-benefit analyses and the permutations of these assumptions. What has been paid less attention is to what end is a smart meter being employed towards. A corollary research question is whether the deployment plan is targeting the correct sector.If the purpose is to introduce automated meter reading across the housing sector then a better strategy would be to legislate for accurate monthly bills, as in Sweden. Allowing suppliers to have greater flexibility will likely reward rather than stifle the design of competition. If the purpose is to manage demand then it may be that it's working with complex tariffs and not the meter per se that counts. The high consuming end-use categories and profile classes would be better placed for that exercise. Innovation theory also supports the targeting of new innovations to larger consumers, allowing metering innovations to proceed along historical trajectories.     

Beyond smart grids - The need of intelligent energy networks for a higher global efficiency through energy vectors integration

From the energy point of view, the season we have been living more and more seems the era of sources diversification. The most correct scenario for a sustainable energy future foresees no predominance of one source over the others in any area of the world but a proper energy mix, based on locally available resources and needs.The concept and role of energy vectors is key: “(an energy vector) allows transfer, in space and time, a given quantity of energy, hence making it available for use distantly in time and space from the point of availability of the original source”. Therefore, a scenario that gives full scope for the ES to be immune from the characteristics of non-sustainable resource consumption and waste production, the system itself must shift the focus from resources to vectors (mainly electricity, hydrogen, heat).Smart grids have been largely indicate, in this context, as an answer for their characteristic “needful design” to move from the “old” grids (unidirectional power flows) to “new” bi-directional electricity networks. This is not enough: the real need is for an intelligent management of a complete set of energy sources and vectors, as electricity, heat, hydrogen, bio and non-biofuels, that requires a clear shift that goes beyond smart grids and looks at Intelligent Energy Networks.     

Modelling and optimization of the smart hybrid renewable energy for communities (SHREC)

The future energy system in community level should be more ‘smart’ to secure reliability, enhance market service, minimize environmental impact, reduce costs and improve the use of renewable energy source (RES). Therefore, this paper proposes an energy integration system – smart hybrid renewable energy for communities (SHREC). It considers both thermal (heating and cooling) and electricity market in a large community level and highlight the interactions between them through utilizing RES, combined heat and power (CHP) and energy storages. A planning model based on CHP modelling is developed for the SHREC system. A linear programming (LP) algorithm is developed to optimize the SHREC system in a weekly period and the results are compared with an existing energy optimization software. We also demonstrate the model in a sample SHREC system during three typical weeks with cold, warm and mid-season weather in the year 2011. The results indicate that the developed modelling and optimization method is more efficient and flexible for the smart hybrid renewable energy systems.     

A price‐regulated electric vehicle charge‐discharge strategy for G2V,V2H,and V2G

Electric vehicles (EVs) and smart grids are gradually revolutionising the transportation sector and electricity sector respectively. In contrast to unplanned charging/discharging, smart use of EV in home energy management system (HEMS) can ensure economic benefit to the EV owner. Therefore, this paper has proposed a new energy pricing controlled EV charging/discharging strategy in HEMS to acquire maximum financial benefit. EV is scheduled to be charged/discharged according to the price of electricity during peak and off‐peak hours. In addition, two different types of EV operation modes, ie, grid‐to‐vehicle (G2V) in off‐peak time and vehicle‐to‐home (V2H) in on‐peak time are considered to determine comparative economic benefit of planned EV charging/discharging. The real load profile of a house in Melbourne and associated electricity pricing is selected for the case study to determine the economic gain. The simulation results illustrate that EV participating in V2H contributes approximately 11.6% reduction in monthly electricity costs compared with G2V operation mode. Although the facility of selling EV energy to the grid is not available currently, the pricing controlled EV charging/discharging presented in the paper can be used if such facility becomes available in the future.     

Exergoeconomic machine-learning method of integrating a thermochemical Cu–Cl cycle in a multigeneration combined cycle gas turbine for hydrogen production

Integrating new technologies into existing thermal energy systems enables multigenerational production of energy sources with high efficiency. The advantages of multigenerational energy production are reflected in the rapid responsiveness of the adaptation of energy source production to current market conditions. To further increase the useful efficiency of multigeneration energy sources production, we developed an exergoeconomic machine-learning model of the integration of the hydrogen thermochemical Cu–Cl cycle into an existing gas-steam power plant. The hydrogen produced will be stored in tanks and consumed when the market price is favourable. The results of the exergoeconomic machine-learning model show that the production and use of hydrogen, in combination with fuel cells, are expedient for the provision of tertiary services in the electricity system. In the event of a breakdown of the electricity system, hydrogen and fuel cells could be used to produce electricity for use by the thermal power plant. The advantages of own or independent production of electricity are primarily reflected in the start-up of a gas-steam power plant, as it is not possible to start a gas turbine without external electricity. The exergy analysis is also in favour of this, as the integration of the hydrogen thermochemical Cu–Cl cycle into the existing gas-steam power plant increases the exergy efficiency of the process.