德国《可再生能源法》2014年最新改革解析及启示

德国政府计划于2014年对可再生能源支持政策进行全面改革,此次改革仍保留了《可再生能源法2012》的整体架构,重点是要控制非水电可再生能源的补贴成本。采取的主要措施包括控制风电、光伏和生物质发电年度装机容量增长目标,补贴重点侧重更加经济有效的可再生能源类型(即陆上风电和光伏),上网电价递减率与年度新增装机容量挂钩的灵活限额机制,调整上网电价递减周期等。同时通过直接营销和拍卖等市场机制,让可再生能源更加融入市场。这标志着德国可再生能源的发展进入到引导投资和重点扶持的新阶段。建议借鉴德国《可再生能源法》完善我国可再生能源支持政策,包括针对不同可再生能源的技术特点制定完善的、自适应的上网电价模型,顺应技术发展规律实行"老机老电价、新机新电价"的电价调整机制,不断提高补贴手段的市场化和有效性等。     

Does a small difference make a difference? Impact of feed-in tariff on renewable power generation in China

This study investigates the effectiveness of regionally differentiated feed-in tariffs (FIT) for the development of renewable energy in China. By using a spatial regression discontinuity design, we estimate the impacts of regionally differentiated FITs on the outcome indicators of wind and solar power generation, such as utilization rate, installed capacity, power generation, and hours of operation. Our findings show that FIT implementation plays an important role in promoting renewable energy development. A small difference in the tariff rate leads to statistically significant differences in outcome indicators among regions. Our results suggest that regionally differentiated FITs might help mitigate the overproduction of wind electricity in regions with abundant wind resources but low electricity demand. In addition, we conclude that enlarged tariff gap among regions can lead to greater impact on increasing installations of renewable power generation facilities in resource-poor regions.     

Optimal feed-in tariff for solar photovoltaic power generation in China: A real options analysis

The feed-in tariff policy is widely used to promote the development of renewable energy. China also adopts feed-in tariff policy to attract greater investment in solar photovoltaic power generation. This study employs real options method to assess the optimal levels of feed-in tariffs in 30 provinces of China. The uncertainties in CO₂ price and investment cost are considered. A method that integrates the backward dynamic programming algorithm and Least-Squares Monte Carlo method is used to solve the model. The results demonstrate that the feed-in tariffs of 30 provinces range from 0.68 RMB/kWh to 1.71 RMB/kWh, and the average level is 1.01 RMB/kWh. On this basis, we find that the levels of sub-regional feed-in tariff announced in 2013 are no longer appropriate and should be adjusted as soon as possible. We have also identified the implications of technological progress and carbon emission trading schemes, as well as the importance of strengthening electricity transmission. It has been suggested that the Chinese government takes diverse measures, including increasing research and development investment, establishing and improving a nationwide carbon emission trading scheme and accelerating the construction of electricity-transmission infrastructure, to reduce the required feed-in tariff and promote the development of solar photovoltaic power generation.     

Support schemes and vertical integration—Who skims the cream?

This paper examines how the effectiveness of feed-in tariffs for distributed generators, producing renewable electricity, depends on industry structure, i.e., vertical integration vs. unbundling. A stylized analytical model with a monopolist and a competitive fringe (distributed generators) will be developed to analyze the impact of feed-in tariffs on renewable power production. The vertically integrated monopolist maximizes profits by setting the electricity price for residual demand and a network access charge incurred by the fringe. The fringe receives a fixed feed-in tariff per unit of electricity produced. Under vertical integration, a rise in the feed-in tariff induces the monopolist to raise access charges for fringe firms and skim part of their additional income. This partially offsets the supply increase of the fringe firms stimulated by the feed-in tariff. However, in the case of effective unbundling with an externally set access charge, there is no possibility for the monopolist to extract part of the fringe's profit. Then, the feed-in tariff fully accrues to the competitive fringe, and its supply will further increase. This setting will be extended to horizontal expansion when the monopolist also enters the renewable production segment. The effects on prices and output will be derived and compared.     

The impact of the German feed-in tariff scheme on innovation: Evidence based on patent filings in renewable energy technologies

Over the last two decades, feed-in tariffs have pushed the massive expansion of electricity from renewable energy sources in Germany. Between 1991 and 1999, feed-in tariffs were prescribed through the Electricity Feed-in Law – the so-called Stromeinspeisungsgesetz (SEG) – at relatively moderate rates. From 2000 onwards, the SEG was replaced by the Renewable Energy Sources Act – the so-called Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz (EEG) – with much higher subsidy rates. The rise in subsidies to renewable power generation under the EEG came along with a substantial increase in electricity prices provoking an intense public debate on the benefits of renewable energy promotion. In our regression analysis, we assess one popular justification for feed-in tariffs: the demand-side effect of induced innovation. We find that the innovation impact of the German feed-in tariff scheme over the last two decades supports the positive innovation hypothesis. However, the inducement effect of the feed-in tariff scheme under the EEG is not significantly different from that of the SEG. Given the drastic cost of the EEG, we caution against the appraisal of the EEG feed-in tariff scheme solely on the grounds of its impact on technological innovation.     

Analysis of wind power generation operation management risk in China

The Chinese government has made an important effort to diversify the country's energy mix and exploit different sources of renewable energy. Although China's installed wind power capacity has undergone a dramatic expansion over the past six years, the electricity generated from wind power has not increased as expected. Meanwhile, operational risks, such as high generation cost, mismatch between capacity and generation, intermittent wind power generation, power grid construction lag, deficient policy, and operation mechanism, have become increasingly prominent. If not controlled, these risks will negatively affect wind power development in China. Therefore, this paper established a quantitative analysis model of wind power operation management risk from two aspects, feed-in tariff and grid electricity (electricity being connected to the grid), based on an analysis of wind power operation management risk in China. Moreover, this study quantitatively assessed the risk of the operational management of a wind farm in Inner Mongolia. Finally, corresponding risk control strategies for the healthy development of wind power generation in China were proposed.     

A market for renewable energy credits in the Indian power sector

Electricity generation from renewable energy sources in India has been promoted through a host of fiscal policies and preferential tariff for electricity produced from the same. The fiscal policies include tax incentives and purchase of electricity generated through renewable energy sources. The enactment of the Electricity Act 2003 (the Act) has lent further support to renewable energy by stipulating purchase of a certain percentage of the power procurement by distribution utilities from renewable energy sources. The renewable portfolio obligation as well as the feed-in tariff for power procurement has been specified by a number of State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) for the respective state under their jurisdiction. A feed-in tariff determined through a cost-plus approach under a rate of return framework lacks incentive for cost minimisation and does not encourage optimal utilisation of renewable energy resources in the country. Such regulatory provisions differ across states.The prevalent practice of fixing a renewable portfolio obligation along with cost-based feed-in tariffs disregards economic efficiency. The paper proposes nationally tradable renewable energy credits scheme for achieving the targets set by the respective SERCs as renewable portfolio obligation. This would reduce the cost of compliance to a renewable portfolio obligation, and would encourage efficient resource utilisation and investment in appropriate technologies. The paper highlights its advantages and implementation issues. This paper discusses regulatory developments for promotion of renewable energy in various Indian states. The paper also identifies a number of issues related to regulations concerning renewable portfolio obligation.     

Behavioural responses to photovoltaic systems in the UK domestic sector

Microgeneration—the generation of electricity and/or heat within the home—has recently become a notable addition to UK energy policy debates. Specifically research has suggested that, as well as providing renewable energy, these technologies might encourage changes in household energy consumption. The research presented here investigates this ‘double-dividend’ effect using PV households in the UK. It is shown that the installation of PV encouraged households to reduce their overall electricity consumption by approximately 6% and shift demand to times of peak generation. From a household perspective, system performance monitors had the most notable influence on these behavioural responses; however evolving industry arrangements for metering and microgeneration tariffs will be central in determining the future role of consumers. The paper therefore concludes that the full benefits of microgeneration can only be realised if informed households are integrated within supportive industry and government frameworks.     

Regulation for renewable energy development: Lessons from Sri Lanka experience

The paper examines the key features of the renewable energy development environment in Sri Lanka which led to sector's rapid expansion. The recent development framework of the renewable energy sector was based on the importance of using indigenous resources, recognizing the positive environmental impacts and the avoidance of high cost alternative thermal generation. This framework also recognized the pioneering effort of the developers in site identification by giving rights to develop on a first-come first-served basis. The policy framework was later extended with a renewable energy portfolio standard to achieve 10% of power generation through renewable energy. The standard power purchase arrangements reduced the transaction costs. The feeding tariffs originally based on avoided costs later shifted to cost based, technology specific tariffs encouraging diversification of the renewable energy portfolio. The introduction of net-metering for renewable energy based distributed generation and the limited interventions in the form of green-tariffs also assisted the renewable energy development. The paper concludes that the policy and regulatory frameworks and different approaches to implementing them have been mostly successful experiences in Sri Lanka and they would provide useful lessons for similar countries when formulating and implementing related polices, regulations and legal frameworks.     

Operational performance of energy storage as function of electricity prices for on-grid hybrid renewable energy system by optimized fuzzy logic controller

Realization of benefits from on-grid distributed generation based on renewable energy sources requires employment of energy storage to overcome the intermittency in power generation by such sources, while accounting for time-varying electricity prices. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of time-varying electricity prices on the performance of energy storage components for an on-grid hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) utilizing an optimized fuzzy logic controller (FLC). To achieve the objective, FLC membership functions are optimized for minimizing the operational cost of the HRES based on weekly and daily prediction of data for grid electricity price, electrical load, and environmental parameters, including wind speed, solar irradiation, and ambient temperature, using shuffled frog leap algorithm. FLC three inputs include (a) grid electricity price, (b) net power flow as the difference between energy produced and energy consumed, and (c) state of charge (SOC) of battery stack. It is confirmed that accounting for grid electricity price has considerable effects on the performance of energy storage components for operation of on-grid HRES, as the weekly and daily optimized FLCs result in less working hours for fuel cell and electrolyzer and less fluctuations in SOC of battery stack.     

我国生物质发电产业SWOT分析

我国正面临着电力供应短缺和环境污染严重等问题的挑战。鼓励发展可再生能源,将对我国社会的可持续发展发挥重要的作用。生物质能源作为一种可再生能源,在过去的5年中已取得快速的发展,既存在着许多机遇,同时也面临许多挑战。文章运用SWOT分析方法,通过实证研究,回顾和评估了我国生物质发电产业存在的各种优势、劣势、机会以及威胁因素;分析了国家相关政策、法规对生物质发电产业的影响,为我国生物质发电产业的未来发展提供参考和借鉴。     

A multivariate coupled economic model study on hydrogen production by renewable energy combined with off-peak electricity

An economic prediction model of hydrogen production from renewable energy complemented with off-peak electricity is developed, and the cost of carbon emission for the off-peak electricity from grid is also considered. The variation of hydrogen cost with the utilization hours of off-peak electricity and the allowable range of off-peak electricity utilization hours under different carbon prices and grid average emission factors are investigated. The results show that it is influenced by the multiplication product of the carbon price and the average carbon emission factor of the grid electricity. The use of off-peak electricity reduces the cost of hydrogen when the multiplication product is less than a critical value, while it causes an increase in the cost of hydrogen when larger than the critical value. Off-peak electricity utilization hours are also constrained by the emission intensity requirement of low-carbon or clean hydrogen. In addition, a generalized multivariate coupled analysis method is developed by investigating single variable sensitivities and decision needs at different stages of the project. The results show that the key coupling variables in the site selection stage are hydrogen price, renewable energy utilization hours and integrated tariff, which is determined by both renewable energy and off-peak grid electricity. In the scheme design stage the key coupling variables are electrolysis energy consumption and unit installed cost. When project parameters are determined along with site specific hydrogen price and renewable energy tariffs, further scheme optimization can be undertaken.     

Renewable energy policy in Turkey with the new legal regulations

Since the energy crises in the 1970’s, public and private decision makers are considering how to achieve a sustainable transition from fossil fuel based energy to sustainable and clean energies - namely renewable energies. Combined with the improvement of energy efficiency and the rational use of energy, renewable energy can provide everything fossil fuels currently offer in terms of heating and cooling, electricity generation and transportation. Renewable energy technologies posses many long term benefits including energy security, job creation, business opportunities, sustainable development and prevention of global warming.Turkey’s population is growing at an annual rate of 1.04%. If Turkey uses only traditional energy sources, it simply will not have enough energy capacity for its population. Renewable energy sources have the potential to make a large contribution to Turkey’s sustainable and independent energy future.Turkey aims to utilize its energy potential, including from renewable sources in a cost-effective manner. Turkey targets the share of renewable resources in electricity generation to be at least 30% by 2023 has in its 2009 Electricity Market and Security of Supply Strategy. Positive achievements have been obtained in renewable energy development and manufacturing in Turkey over the past decade. The renewable energy related legislation has been intensified. To meet its 30% target, the current promotion mechanism for renewable sources of electricity relies on feed-in tariffs for different renewable energy sources. Large hydropower is already competitive to conventional fossil-based electricity, so feed-in tariffs in the new RE Law are set to facilitate expanding the deployment of other, less mature renewable energy technologies.     

Renewable energy policy and electricity market reforms in China

The article examines the potential effectiveness of the renewable energy policy in China and its regulatory Law framework. It frames the option of renewable energy technology within the background of the long-lasting electricity problems that China has faced including serious supply shortages, reliance on coal, and severe environmental contamination. Its dual administrative and ownership system based on state and privately owned industry is discussed together with the market reform measures adopted in the sector. Current renewable energy policy is analysed, and the scope of the 2005 Renewable Energy Promotion Law is investigated. This is conducted within the context of the electricity sector reform that China adopted, and its effects upon the prospects of encouraging as well as expanding the development of renewable energy. This study draws upon primary information collected from interviews with stakeholders on the policy adequacy, and identifies three main types of shortcomings that have interfered with a more successful expansion of renewable energy in China.     

Hydrogen energy storage systems to improve wind power plant efficiency considering electricity tariff dynamics

One of the limitations of the efficiency of renewable energy sources is the stochastic nature of generation; consequently, it is necessary to use high-capacity energy storage systems such as hydrogen storage for its integration into existing power networks. At the same time, electricity market tariffs for large enterprises change during the day. Therefore, it can be assumed that storing energy during cheaper hours and usage in more expensive hours allows increasing the efficiency of renewable energy sources. Evaluation of the economic efficiency of an energy storage system requires simulation with a step of at least 1 h for several years since the use of averaged production volume and averaged electricity tariffs will not allow obtaining an adequate to the task accuracy. A simulation model and software have been implemented to perform simulations and calculate the economic efficiency of a wind turbine with and without a hydrogen storage device. The methodology has been approved on three-year real data of wind speeds and electricity tariffs in the Novosibirsk region and Krasnodar Territory (Russian Federation).     

An imbalanced development of coal and electricity industries in China

China's coal and electricity industries have a strong reliance on each other, however, because of excessive invasion of government, it is difficult for these two industries to form a stable, reasonable, and transaction cost-saving relationships, but long-run disputes and quarrels. This paper discusses the pricing policies and transaction relationship between these two industries from the historical perspective. It begins with the discussion of coal. Coal market has become competitive since 1980 due to the system of dual track approach, but coal sold to electricity was still tightly controlled by government-guided pricing. Then the paper examines electricity investment and tariff reform. Unlike coal, entry to electricity generation sector was gradually relaxed but generation and retailing tariffs are still strictly regulated. As energy demand and prices soared after 2002, coal and electricity enterprises are all unsatisfied with the rule of price setting of coal sold to electricity industry. This paper concludes that the deliberate low coal price policy does protect electricity industry from fuel cost fluctuation but harm coal industry. Allocative and productive efficiency are difficult to achieve in the long run.     

中国光伏产业2020年回顾与2021年展望

受新冠肺炎疫情的影响,2020年全球经济倒退,然而在此形势下,我国光伏产业却逆流而上,取得了令人瞩目的成就,保持并延续了多项世界第一.首先,从应用市场实现恢复性增长、产业规模持续扩大、光伏产品出口稳中有增、技术创新活跃,以及光伏发电中标电价与光伏发电成本持续下降等方面对2020年我国光伏产业的发展形势进行了回顾;其次,...     

Incentive policies for promoting wind power production in Brazil: Scenarios for the Alternative Energy Sources Incentive Program (PROINFA) under the New Brazilian electric power sector regulation

The Alternative Energy Sources Incentive Program (PROINFA) was designed in 2002 to stimulate the electricity generation from three energy sources (wind, biomass and small-scale hydro) in Brazil. The Program was divided into two phases. The first one uses feed-in tariffs for promoting the development of 3300 MW. The second one that was originally based on feed-in tariffs was modified in 2003, in order to be based on biddings for renewables. These biddings are capped to limit their impact on the final electricity tariff. Due to this bound, the highest-cost power option promoted by PROINFA (wind power generation) might have development problems. Simulating different scenarios for the biddings, it was verified that the only way to reach the original goal set by PROINFA (10% of the annual electricity consumption provided by alternative sources up to 2020) and, simultaneously, not overcome the bidding bound is to promote biomass-fired power generation alone, during the Program's second phase. However, this action contradicts one of the targets of the Program, which is to diversify the energy matrix. An alternative option could be biddings for renewables according to specific criteria (complementarities, industrial and technological development and cost), based not only on their cost-effectiveness.     

Cost and optimal feed-in tariff for small scale photovoltaic systems in China

China has recently become a dominant player in the solar photovoltaic (PV) industry, producing more than one-third of the global supply of solar cells in 2008. However, as of 2008, less than 1% of global installations were based in China. Recently, the government has stated its grand ambitions of expanding the share of electricity derived from solar power. As part of this initiative, policy makers are currently in the process of drafting a feed-in tariff policy to support the development of the solar energy market. In this paper, we aim to calculate what the level of such a tariff should be. We develop a closed form equation for the cost of PV, and use forecasts on prices of solar systems to derive an optimal feed-in tariff, including a digression rate. The focus is on the potential of residential and small scale commercial solar PV installations. We show that the cost of small scale PV in China has decreased rapidly during the period 2005–2009. Our analysis also shows that optimal feed-in tariffs vary widely between regions within China, and that grid parity could be reached in large parts of the country depending on the expected escalation in electricity prices.     

A review on the pattern of electricity generation and emission in Iran from 1967 to 2008

The electricity consumption growth in Iran requires a rapid development of power plant construction. Like many other countries, most of the power plants in Iran are using fossil fuel. In the past decade, thermal power plants generated about 94% of electricity and about 6% was generated by renewable sources such as hydro-power. This study is to show a clear view of 42 years an evolutionary trend of Iran's electricity generation industry. The capacity of power generation installed and electricity generation from the years 1967 to 2008 has been gathered. The total pollutant emissions and emission per unit electricity generation for each type of power plants have also been calculated using emission factors and the pattern of electricity generation and emission has been presented. The results shown that encouraging of using renewable energy sources and increasing the contribution of the combined cycle as a best type of thermal power plants and use more natural gas is recommended to reduce emission.