Reduction of electricity use in Swedish industry and its impact on national power supply and European CO2 emissions

Decreased energy use is crucial for achieving sustainable energy solutions. This paper presents current and possible future electricity use in Swedish industry. Non-heavy lines of business (e.g. food, vehicles) that use one-third of the electricity in Swedish industry are analysed in detail. Most electricity is used in the support processes pumping and ventilation, and manufacturing by decomposition. Energy conservation can take place through e.g. more efficient light fittings and switching off ventilation during night and weekends. By energy-carrier switching, electricity used for heat production is replaced by e.g. fuel. Taking technically possible demand-side measures in the whole lines of business, according to energy audits in a set of factories, means a 35% demand reduction. A systems analysis of power production, trade, demand and conservation was made using the MODEST energy system optimisation model, which uses linear programming and considers the time-dependent impact on demand for days, weeks and seasons. Electricity that is replaced by district heating from a combined heat and power (CHP) plant has a dual impact on the electricity system through reduced demand and increased electricity generation. Reduced electricity consumption and enhanced cogeneration in Sweden enables increased electricity export, which displaces coal-fired condensing plants in the European electricity market and helps to reduce European CO₂ emissions. Within the European emission trading system, those electricity conservation measures should be taken that are more cost-efficient than other ways of reducing CO₂ emissions. The demand-side measures turn net electricity imports into net export and reduce annual operation costs and net CO₂ emissions due to covering Swedish electricity demand by 200 million euros and 6 Mtonne, respectively. With estimated electricity conservation in the whole of Swedish industry, net electricity exports would be larger and net CO₂ emissions would be even smaller.     

Export orientation and domestic electricity generation: Effects on energy efficiency innovation in select sectors

Why are some countries developing many energy efficiency innovations, while others are lagging behind? I argue that export orientation and electricity at low variable cost from nuclear and hydropower plants have an interactive effect on energy efficiency innovation. Export-oriented countries have strong incentives to invest in energy efficiency innovation, as they are in a position to export these technology innovations for global markets. But if inexpensive electricity is supplied in a country, the domestic demand for energy efficiency innovation is missing, and so the home market cannot serve as a springboard for international commercialization. I test this theory against international patent data on energy efficiency innovation in insulation, heating, and lighting for 22 OECD countries, 1991–2007. The statistical analysis indicates that export orientation has large positive effects on energy efficiency innovation in countries that do not rely on nuclear and hydroelectricity.     

2013年世界能源行业发展状况

2013年以来,全球经济复苏有所减弱,国际能源供需格局稳中有变,消费东移、生产西移的趋势愈加明显.从能源结构看,全球油气供需格局深刻调整,价格与贸易流向变化显著;煤炭消费总量和增速继续上升,但地区消费的不平衡性加剧,贸易流向有所改变;煤炭、天然气的相对价格变化导致各国电源结构发生显著变化;全球核电消费继续下降,欧美各国在核能的开发和利用上愈加谨慎;水电发展区域性突出;风电行业发展面临不确定性;光伏产业则呈现复苏态势.     

Emissions from electricity generation in Malaysia

Emissions in the process utilization produce adverse effects on the environment that influence human health, organism growth, climatic changes and so on. The Kyoto protocol, produced by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCC) in December 1997, prescribed a legally binding greenhouse gas emission target about 5% below their 1990 level. About 160 countries including Malaysia now adopt this protocol. Electricity generation is one of the main contributors to emissions in the country. In order to calculate the potential emissions produced by this activity, the type of fuel use should be identified. Malaysia hopes to gradually change fuel use from 70% gas, 15% coal, 10% hydro, and 5% petroleum in the year 2000 to 40% gas, 30% hydro, 29% coal, and only 1% petroleum by the year 2020. The changes in fuel type have changed the pattern of emission production. This study attempts to predict the pattern of emissions from 2002 to 2020 due to the changes in fuel use. The calculation is based on emissions for unit electricity generated and the percentages of fuel use for electricity generation. The study found that the electricity generation company has produced huge emissions from their power plants in this country.     

Captive power generation in Saudi Arabia—Overview and recommendations on policies

The power sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is undergoing the restructuring process. Moreover, during the last decade the Kingdom has witnessed a phenomenal growth in the load demand, consequently a huge amount of generation is added to the electric utilities to meet the load. Up to now only the electric utility generation was taken in the planning of the electrical sector. The data regarding the captive power generation was not readily available. A survey is conducted regarding the captive power generation in Saudi Arabia based on its utilization pattern, fuel used and amount of excess energy available to the grid. The existing regulatory framework and institutional structure of the Saudi power industry was also reviewed. Based on the information collected in the survey of captive power, key guidelines that may be considered in developing the policy for the captive power generators are presented. Furthermore, these guidelines and later the policies will help promote the investors to come forward in developing the captive power generation in Saudi Arabia.     

促进风电产业健康发展的思考

文章对制约风电发展的因素进行了分析,认为,我国应大力发展小规模、低电压、近消纳、直接接入配电网系统的分散式风电,积极开展大规模集中开发风电的研究,待时机成熟时再全面推开。国家应当用好政府补贴、特许权招标两个手段,加强对风电的调控。合理确定各地风电规模,统筹考虑风电电源布局,加强风电配套电网建设,改革风电项目审批或核准方式,取消行政办法对风电上网的定价。推广实施节能发电调度办法,确保优先调度已建成运行的风电上网。通过竞争使风电招标的上网价格尽快达到常规电力的水平,具备与普通商业电力相同的竞争力。     

Optimum energy storage techniques for the improvement of renewable energy sources-based electricity generation economic efficiency

The high wind and solar potential along with the extremely high electricity production cost met in the majority of Greek Aegean islands comprising autonomous electrical networks, imply the urgency for new renewable energy sources (RES) investments. To by-pass the electrical grid stability constraints arising from an extensive RES utilization, the adaptation of an appropriate energy storage system (ESS) is essential. In the present analysis, the cost effect of introducing selected storage technologies in a large variety of autonomous electrical grids so as to ensure higher levels of RES penetration, in particular wind and solar, is examined in detail. A systematic parametrical analysis concerning the effect of the ESSs’ main parameters on the economic behavior of the entire installation is also included. According to the results obtained, a properly sized RES-based electricity generation station in collaboration with the appropriate energy storage equipment is a promising solution for the energy demand problems of numerous autonomous electrical networks existing worldwide, at the same time suggesting a clean energy generation alternative and contributing to the diminution of the important environmental problems resulting from the operation of thermal power stations.     

Regulatory road maps for the integration of intermittent electricity generation: Methodology development and the case of The Netherlands

The envisaged increase in the share of electricity generation from intermittent renewable energy sources (RES-E) like wind and photovoltaics will pose challenges to the existing electricity system. A successful integration of these sources requires a cost-efficient use of system flexibility. The literature on the options to improve system flexibility, and thus the costs of successfully integrating intermittent electricity generating units, is still growing but what is lacking is an overarching systematic view on when to adopt which option in particular energy systems. This paper aims to bridge this gap in literature. We use existing insights on market and network integration of intermittent electricity sources within a regulatory road map framework. The framework allows policy makers and other electricity system stakeholders to arrive at a consistent strategy in dealing with integration issues over a longer period of time. In this contribution we present and explain the framework and apply it for the case of The Netherlands.     

Subsidies for electricity-generating technologies: A review

This paper presents estimates of the extent of subsidisation globally, via selected mechanisms, for a number of different electricity-generating technologies. The technologies covered are coal-fired, nuclear, wind, solar PV, concentrating solar, geothermal, biomass and hydroelectric power. To the knowledge of the authors, this study provides the most complete and comprehensive collation of energy subsidies so far at a global level. Our series of information allows a comparison of subsidies for electricity-generating technologies, based on the respective states of development and deployment during different time periods. To date, on average, hydropower receives the least subsidies per unit of electricity it generates and geothermal and nuclear power receive an equally low level of subsidies per kWh generated. Amongst renewables, wind power has registered a spectacular success story in reducing the need for subsidisation. The same cannot be said for the two solar technologies, and for biomass. Coal-fired power has the highest subsidisation level, despite its high level of global deployment, which is mainly because of external costs due to climate change impacts. Our study demonstrates that accounting for subsidies under an agreed framework can be important for informing future policy decisions on subsidisation.     

Sustainability of energy production and use in Iran

The issue of oil and gas policies in Iran is rather complex. In the present investigation, it is aimed to formulate plans for increasing the capacity of the country's energy production. Analysis of energy consumption pattern over last decades is indicative of inefficient usage. The low energy prices in Iran do not reflect economic costs. Further distortions exist in the tariff structures of most energy sources and in their relative prices. It is recognized that price reform is a key policy element for promotion of energy conservation and fuel substitution with renewable energies. Mitigation policies in the energy sector are crucial to Iran's overall policies. Emission of greenhouse gases can be reduced from 752,156 to 560,791 Gg CO₂ equivalents in 2010 by implementing the policies proposed for the energy sub-sectors. Enhancing energy efficiency, including combined cycle power generation, has proved to be the most economic option for greenhouse gases reduction in energy sector. Iran's energy consumption pattern is unsustainable and consumption oriented.     

The impact of energy efficiency programs on the growth of electricity sales

With increasing concern about carbon dioxide emissions from power generation, high natural gas costs for generating electricity, and rapidly increasing costs of constructing new power plants, energy efficiency programs are being given greater consideration by utilities and regulators. This study reports on a statistical analysis of the relationship between state-level efficiency program effort and growth in electricity sales between 2001 and 2006 in the United States. The higher the utility efficiency program expenditures per capita and the greater the range of other efficiency programs offered, the greater the reduction in the growth of power sales. Application of the portfolio of energy efficiency programs used in the states with most aggressive programs would have reduced the growth in a state's electricity sales by about 60% relative to the case where no efficiency programs were implemented.     

Red light for Green Paper: The EU policy on energy efficiency

The EU Green Paper on energy efficiency calls for action to decrease energy use and thus achieve increased competitiveness, fulfil the environmental targets and increase security of supply. In this comment, we examine the role the EU Commission suggest that energy efficiency, and policies supporting energy efficiency, takes. The policies and the suggestions are qualitatively elaborated upon in the light of the goal of a common European electricity market. We suggest that the rationales for the energy efficiency measures are weak, and that the suggested goals of increased competitiveness, environmental targets, and security of supply are best reached with the direct measures especially designed for each goal. Some of the energy efficiency measures may counter-act other direct policies. Further, The Green Paper measures may prove detrimental to the European Electricity market insofar as the policies suggested could lead to a policy fatigue among the electricity consumers.     

在能源分析中采用等效电方法

本文分析了目前使用的"当量热值法"和"等价值法"两种能源换算方法存在的问题。其中,当量热值法只看能源所含热量大小,忽略不同能源的品位和做功能力的差别,而导致节能评价中出现谬误;等价值法在评价二次能源时考虑实际对应的一次能源量,但由于采用的是全国平均值,在面临实际问题时仍然不能明确给出各个环节的能源损失大小,而在评价一些能源转换环节时出现逻辑矛盾。为了解决以上能源核算和节能措施评价中的问题,本文提出一种综合了能源的数量和品位的"等效电法",某种能源换算为等效电,反映了其在当前工艺和技术水平下的最大做功能力。分析与大批实例表明,采用等效电法可以清楚地给出能源输送与转换各个环节的损失与流通状况,并能够满足能源统计平衡的要求,同时还可以对各种能源转换方式和用能方式做出较科学的分析评价。     

Electricity consumption by battery-powered consumer electronics: A household-level survey

The rapid proliferation of battery-powered consumer electronics and their reliance on inefficient linear transformers has been suggested to be an important part of the rapid growth in “miscellaneous” electricity consumption in recent years, but detailed data are scarce. We conducted a survey of 34 randomly selected households (HHs) in Northern California about the number, type, and usage of consumer electronics. We also measured the energy consumption of 85 typical consumer electronic devices through various parts of the charge cycle. These primary data were supplemented by national sales information for consumer electronics. Results indicate that typical HHs own 8.4 rechargeable devices, which have a total average demand of 12–17 W per HH. Statewide, this amounts to 160–220 MW of demand, with the peak occurring in the late evening, and about 1600 GWh per year. Only about 15% of this energy is used for battery charging, the rest is lost as waste heat during no-load and charge maintenance periods. Technical options to increase the efficiency of these devices, and the research and policy steps needed to realize these savings are discussed.     

Penetration of solar power without storage

If solar power is to provide substantial portions of our electricity needs, it will first become cost effective when it provides peak power in the daytime, without the need for storing the energy. Indeed since human electricity consumption is frequently small at night and larger when the sun is shining, there is already a natural correlation. Existing power systems are currently geared to provide this variable demand, with baseload plants cheaply providing a constant level of power, and dispatchable plants dynamically (and more expensively) supplying the rest. This leads to the frequent suggestion that one can exploit the correlation between sunlight and electricity by using energy from solar panels during the day to offset some of the load previously generated by dispatchable plants.     

Reshaping the electric power industry

The electric power industry has entered a period of rapid change — with profound implications for the health of the global economy and natural environment. Many of today's vertically integrated utilities are likely to be restructured or broken up in the coming decade, yielding a commodity market in power generation and transmission, and a competitive services market at the local distribution level. The transformation of the industry is being driven both by broad trends toward privatization and deregulation, and by rapid advances in energy producing and consuming technologies. Devices such as fuel cells, photovoltaics, and flywheels will open the way to a more decentralized power industry in which electricity generation and storage facilities are increasingly located in customers' own facilities — integrated and controlled by new digital communications systems.     

Renewable portfolio standards and cost-effective energy-efficiency investment

Renewable portfolio standards (RPSs) and mandates to invest in cost-effective energy efficiency (EE) are increasingly popular policy tools to combat climate change and dependence on fossil fuels. These supply-side and demand-side policies, however, are often uncoordinated. Using California as a case in point, this paper demonstrates that states could improve resource allocation if these two policies were coordinated by incorporating renewable-energy procurement cost into the cost-effectiveness determination for EE investment. In particular, if renewable energy is relatively expensive when compared to conventional energy, increasing the RPS target raises the cost-effective level of EE investment.     

技术进步、结构调整与电力能源消费效率

本文采用对数平均的LMDI方法对1998～2007年的电能强度变动趋势进行了分解分析。结果表明:电能强度的降低主要得益于技术进步的贡献,尽管技术进步的贡献呈下降趋势;而产业结构变化,无论六大类产业结构还是两位数产业结构对电能强度的下降均具有抑制作用。文章分析了2001年以来电能强度小幅上升的原因,并进一步探讨了提高电力消费效率的对策。