东瀛归来话氢能——记中国氢能代表团成功访问日本

2009年2月22日～28日,由中国可再生能源学会氢能专业委员会组织的中国氢能代表团成功地访问了日本.代表团共15名成员,其中9名团员为高校和研究机构的氢能专家,其余6名团员为与氢能相关的企业家,代表团成员工作领域包括氢能制备、储运、应用以及政策法规等,覆盖了氢能产业整个领域.     

Hydrogen energy research programs in Japan

Under the “Sunshine Program” for energy development, Japan has undertaken a broad-based research program on hydrogen as a major carrier. This activity covers all the major aspects of the proposition, namely, hydrogen production, storage, transmission and usage as well as economic implications of the hydrogen energy carrier system. The work is distributed over several Government laboratories, universities and technical institutes, and industrial establishments. The progress achieved in various directions during the four year period 1974–1978 is reviewed in the present article.     

Hydrogen energy research and developments in Japan

Hydrogen energy research and development programs in Japan can be divided into four categories: (1) The Sunshine Project conducted by MITI since 1974. This is the most prominent and ambitious national program. More than $20 million has been spent for hydrogen energy development since its beginning in 1974. (2) The program of windpower storage developed by the Science and Technology Agency. Two 20 kW windmills convert wind energy into heat which is stored in a metal hydride system and is used to greenhouse farming in the winter time. Other activities are mostly alloy development. (3) Basic studies in universities are mostly on hydrogen production by the semiconductor-liquid junction, by photochemical reaction and by biological processes. (4) Some activities in private enterprises, for example, are on the application of metal hydrides, hydrogen liquefaction plant, direct reduction of ore and so on, but not on the thermochemical method at all. This paper reviews the principal programmes and activities on hydrogen energy systems in Japan. However, the main part will be devoted to the Sunshine Project which covers all the major aspects, namely, hydrogen production, storage, transmission, usage and safety as well as economic implications of hydrogen energy systems.     

Hydrogen energy systems technology study

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Office of Energy Programs initiated the Hydrogen Energy Systems Technology (HEST) Study in the autumn of 1974. The Caltech Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) was made responsible for conducting the study and reporting the results, with active support from several NASA Centres through a Working Panel. Objectives of the study were defined to be the assessment of national needs for hydrogen, based on current uses and visible trends, and determination of the critical research and technology activities required to meet these needs, with attention to economic, social, and environmental considerations, providing a basis for the planning of a hydrogen research and technology program.The HEST Study found current U.S. hydrogen utilization to be dominated by chemical-industry and petroleum-processing applications, and to represent 3% of total energy consumption. The study's projections of hydrogen uses show growth the remainder of this century by at least a factor of five, and perhaps a factor of twenty. New applications in the manufacture of synthetic fuels from coal and directly as an energy storage medium and fuel are expected to emerge later this century. Of these new uses, electric utility energy storage for peak-shaving, supplements to the natural gas supply and special purpose transportation fuel such as aircraft, show promise.The Study concludes that the development and implementation of new means of supplying hydrogen, replacing the use of natural gas and petroleum feedstocks, are imperative. New production technology is essential to support even the lowest growth estimate. Methods based on alternative fossil feedstocks, such as coal and heavy oils, which are less expensive and nearer to technical maturity than non-fossil production systems, should be made operational while these feedstocks are abundant. Concurrently, the long-term tasks of advancing electrolysis technology, researching other water-splitting techniques, and integrating these with developing nuclear and emerging solar primary-energy systems, must be carried on, together with work on hydrogen combustion systems and research in materials and safety engineering. Systems studies and assessments of the economic, social and environmental impacts of hydrogen technology are also called for.     

氢能源:日本未来的产业支柱

通常，人们把石油、煤炭、天然气等天然能源称为“一次性能源”，而这些“一次性能源”经过加工、转换，才能成为易于使用的电力、煤气、汽油等“二次性能源”。目前，日本的一次性能源构成占全部能源结构的81％，这造成了能源过于依赖中东地区、石化能源枯竭和地球环境遭到破坏等诸多不利。     

Recent development of hydride energy systems in Japan

Thermal energy conversion systems such as steam-generation plants, chilled water production plants, industrial air-conditioning and heating systems, and solar-assisted heat pumps for residential use have been developing in Japan since 1977. Most applications have been aimed at the utilization of industrial waste heat and low-temperature thermal energy sources which would otherwise be unavailable through conventional technologies. This paper will describe the present status of the Japanese developments of the metal-hydride energy conversion systems. Metal hydride reactions applied for cyclic uses will also be correlated in connection with various hydride properties, operating modes, and cost-effectiveness standpoints.     

The status of solar energy systems in Japan

The long term national programmes on solar energy R&D were overviewed. Brief summary of recent development and current application of solar energy technology are stated with inclusion of future prediction and economic viability.     

Comparative risk assessment of energy systems

Nearly all energy systems entail some significant forms of health, environmental, or socio-political risks. But there is considerable difference among various energy systems in the magnitude, timing, and nature of their associated risks. It is this difference that allows a degree of choice, or policy, with regard to selecting energy alternatives. The National Academy of Sciences Committee on Nuclear and Alternative Energy Systems compiled a detailed analysis of risks associated with different types of energy use. A condensed table of that analysis is presented.The issue of assessing risks is also discussed, to give the reader an idea of the complications involved in making valid risk assessments, and the worth of risk assessment as a public policymaking device. Among questions raised: Can risks and benefits be measured in the same units? Can we, for example, compare the risk of climatic change with the risk of accidental injury or death? How much do we value the future? Are we willing to invest money today to save a life tomorrow? (This is known as valuing or discounting the future, a difficult economic value question.) Moreover, public perception of risks affects policy response to risks.There are, of course, uncertainties. The likelihood exists that many factors have not yet been assessed and that unidentified risks of a serious nature could surface. As more and more aspects are studied, additional risks will be uncovered.Because of the uncertainties and diversity of both risks and benefits associated with alternative energy systems, our embryonic methods of risk analysis must be improved. The public and its leaders must be familiar with the basics of risk analysis and be able to distinguish between issues of fact, and value issues. It is clear that we cannot rely solely on one form of energy. Diversity will provide a hedge against unforeseen risks.Risks will be proportional to the total energy produced and consumed by society. Therefore, it is essential that global population be kept in check so that total energy usage can be minimized, while per capita consumption is not too low. If more and more people use energy to improve standards of living, the ultimate adverse health, environmental and social impacts could well outweigh the benefits.     

Design for renewable energy systems with application to rural areas in Japan

This study uses optimization modeling to study efficient ways to integrate renewable energy systems to provide electricity and heat in rural Japan. The model provides minimum cost system configuration and operation taking into account hour-by-hour energy availability and demand. Grid electricity is available to rural areas of Japan, but it is relatively expensive. Local renewable energy generation can be economic while using grid electricity to compensate for the intermittency of the renewable generation. In the model, renewable electricity can be provided by a combination of wind, photovoltaic, and biomass. Heat can be provided by petroleum, LPG, and geothermal heat pumps (GHPs). We find that due to the relatively high cost of grid electricity, there is significant penetration of wind generation. In turn, the penetration of wind creates economic conditions that encourage GHP penetration. The integrated renewable system reduces the annual cost of the entire system by 31%, and reduces the carbon emissions by 50%.     

Structural changes in Japan''s economy and society and outlook for long-term energy supply and demand

The purpose of this report is to give an outlook for Japan's energy supply and demand to 2015, while taking into consideration structural changes in the economy and society at present and into the future, and to extract subjects that we should address today. When projecting energy supply and demand for the next two decades, we face a number of uncertainties both at home and abroad. In order to project energy supply and demand in the future, three scenarios are assumed: the standard case, the high growth case and the low growth case. Energy supply and demand are projected for each case, showing conditions under which the three scenarios are achieved.     

Multi-criteria evaluation for the optimal adoption of distributed residential energy systems in Japan

Evaluation of sustainable residential energy system is complex process, in which not only the economic aspect, but also the energetic and environmental effects should be taken into consideration. In this paper, an integrated design and evaluation model has been developed, by combing linear programming and multi-criteria evaluation method, in order to determine the optimal residential energy system while considering different types of information. As an illustrative example, an investigation is conducted for a typical residential building in Kitakyushu, Japan. A set of residential energy alternatives, including both conventional energy and renewable energy applications, are assumed for adoption. Based on the optimal design results from the linear programming, the various alternatives have been assessed against economic, energetic and environmental criteria. According to the evaluation results, currently, renewable energy systems are not competitive unless strong attention is paid to the environmental benefits. All electric system may be a transitional consideration before reaching an actual low carbon residential energy system. Furthermore, the evaluation result is greatly influenced by the criteria priority, as well as the evaluation method.     

Hydrogen economy in Taiwan and biohydrogen

This study analyzed how production technology advances and how economic structure reformation affects transition to a hydrogen economy in Taiwan before 2030. A model, called “Taiwan general equilibrium model-energy, for hydrogen (TAIGEM-EH)”, was the forecast tool used to consider steam reforming of natural gas, the biodegradation of biomass and water electrolysis using nuclear power or renewable energies of hydrogen production industries. Owing to increase in the prices of oil and concern for global warming effects, hydrogen will have a 10.3% share in 2030 when demands for hydrogen production could be met if strong technological progress in hydrogen production were made. With reformed economic structure and strong support to progress in production technologies, hydrogen's share can reach 22.1% in 2030 and become the dominating energy source from then onwards. In the four scenarios studied, including developing country with three levels of effort and developed country with strong effort, the biohydrogen production industry can become a main supplier of hydrogen in the market if its technological progress can be competitive to other _CO2${\mathrm{CO}}_2$-free alternatives.     

An assessment of the energy tax burden on the Philippine economy

This paper uses an aggregate modelling approach to assess the impacts of a redistribution of the taxes and duties that currently exist on crude oil and refined petroleum products in the Philippine economy. The approach used in the analysis consists of a general equilibrium model composed of fourteen producing sectors, fourteen consuming sectors, three household categories classified by income and a government. The effects of replacing the taxes and duties on crude oil and refined petroleum products with a more broad-based tax on manufacturing and service sectors output on prices and quantities are examined. The results are revealing. For example, the consequences of redistributing the tax burden away from petroleum products to the manufacturing and service sectors of the Philippine economy would be an increase in output by all producing sectors of about 3.5% or about 2.4 hundred billion Philippine pesos, a rise in the consumption of goods and services by about 6.1% or 1.6 hundred billion Philippine pesos, a rise in total utility by 6.9% or 1.9 hundred billion Philippine pesos and virtually no change in tax revenue for the government. When subjected to a sensitivity analysis, the results are reasonably robust with regard to the assumption of the values of the substitution eleasticities. That is, while the model's equilibrium values do vary in response to different assumptions of the values of these elasticities, the fluctutations are not so enormous to suggest that the model is unrealistically sensititve to these parameters.