Investigation of the influence of spatial coherence of a broad-area laser diode on the interference fringe system of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer for highly spatially resolved velocity measurements

Laser Doppler anemometry is a method for absolute velocity measurements that is based on a Mach-Zehnder interferometer arrangement and usually employs transverse fundamental-mode lasers. We employed inexpensive and powerful broad-area laser diodes and investigated ways in which an interference fringe system is influenced by the spatial coherence properties of a multimode beam. It was demonstrated that, owing to poor spatial coherence of the beam, interference is suppressed in the marginal regions of the intersection volume. Based on these results, a sensor for highly spatially resolved velocity measurements can be built. The inherent astigmatism of the broad-area diode is corrected by an arrangement of two crossed cylindrical lenses. An interference fringe system of length 200 microm and a relative variation in fringe-spacing of only 0.22% were demonstrated with light emitted from a broad-area laser diode with a 100 microm x 1 microm emitter size. Based on this principle a powerful, simple, and robust laser Doppler sensor has been achieved. Highly spatially resolved measurements of a boundary layer flow are presented.     

Full-field optical coherence tomography with thermal light

A simple optical coherence tomography system has been developed based on a white-light Linnik interferometric microscope with its reference mirror mounted on a piezoelectric translator. The geometrical extension of the optics allows efficient illumination of this device with a low-power (3-W) light bulb, yielding full-field interferometric images at 50 Hz with a fast CCD camera. Owing to the very broad spectral width of the light source and of the camera response, we achieved axial resolutions equal to 1.1 microm in free space and 0.7 microm through a standard microscope cover plate. Tomographic images of an epithelial cell smear and of an hematological sample are shown.     

Computer-controlled optical scanning tile microscope

A new type of computer-controlled optical scanning, high-magnification imaging system with a large field of view is described that overcomes the commonly believed incompatibility of achieving both high magnification and a large field of view. The new system incorporates galvanometer scanners, a CCD camera, and a high-brightness LED source for the fast acquisition of a large number of a high-resolution segmented tile images with a magnification of 800x for each tile. The captured segmented tile images are combined to create an effective enlarged view of a target totaling 1.6 mm x 1.2 mm in area. The speed and sensitivity of the system make it suitable for high-resolution imaging and monitoring of a small segmented area of 320 microm x 240 microm with 4 microm resolution. Each tile segment of the target can be zoomed up without loss of the high resolution. This new microscope imaging system gives both high magnification and a large field of view. This microscope can be utilized in medicine, biology, semiconductor inspection, device analysis, and quality control.     

Long-working-distance incoherent-light interference microscope

We describe the design and operation of a long-working-distance, incoherent light interference microscope that has been developed to address the growing demand for new microsystem characterization tools. The design of the new microscope is similar to that of a Linnik interference microscope and thus preserves the full working distance of the long-working-distance objectives utilized. However, in contrast to a traditional Linnik microscope, the new microscope does not rely on the use of matched objectives in the sample and the reference arms of the interferometer. An adjustable optical configuration has been devised that allows the total optical path length, wavefront curvature, and dispersion of the reference arm to be matched to the sample arm of the interferometer. The reference arm configuration can be adjusted to provide matching for 5x, 10x, and 20x long-working-distance objectives in the sample arm. In addition to retaining the full working distance of the sample arm objectives, the new design allows interference images to be acquired in situations in which intervening windows are necessary, such as occur with packaged microsystems, microfluidic devices, and cryogenic, vacuum, or environmental chamber studies of microsystem performance. The interference microscope is compatible with phase-shifting interferometry, vertical scanning interferometry, and stroboscopic measurement of dynamic processes.     

3x3 Mach-Zehnder interferometer with unbalanced differential detection for full-range swept-source optical coherence tomography

Quadrature interferometry based on 3x3 fiber couplers could be used to double the effective imaging depth in swept-source optical coherence tomography. This is due to its ability to suppress the complex conjugate artifact naturally. We present theoretical and experimental results for a 3x3 Mach-Zehnder interferometer using a new unbalanced differential optical detection method. The new interferometer provides simultaneous access to complementary phase components of the complex interferometric signal. No calculations by trigonometric relationships are needed. We demonstrate a complex conjugate artifact suppression of 27 dB obtained in swept-source optical coherence tomography using our unbalanced differential detection. We show that our unbalanced differential detection has increased the signal-to-noise ratio by at least 4 dB compared to the commonly used balanced detection technique. This is due to better utilization of optical power.     

Design and processing of high-density single-mode fiber arrays for imaging and parallel interferometer applications

The design and fabrication procedures for implementing a high-density (16-microm center spacing) single-mode fiber (SMF) array are described. The specific application for this array is a parallel optical coherence tomography system for endoscopic imaging. We obtained fiber elements by etching standard single-mode SMF-28 fibers to a diameter of 14-15 microm. We equalized 1-m lengths of fiber to within 1 mm by using a fiber interferometer setup, and we describe a method for packaging arrays with as many as 100 fibers.     

Lensed fiber probes designed as an alternative to bulk probes in optical coherence tomography

We demonstrate a compact all-fiber sampling probe for an optical coherence tomography (OCT) system. By forming a focusing lens directly on the tip of an optical fiber, a compact sampling probe could be implemented. To simultaneously achieve a sufficiently long working distance and a good lateral resolution, we employed a large-mode area photonic crystal fiber (PCF) and a coreless silica fiber (CSF) of the same diameters. A working distance of up to 1270 microm, a 3 dB distance range of 2210 microm, and a transverse resolution of 14.2 microm were achieved with the implemented PCF lensed fiber; these values are comparable to those obtainable with a conventional objective lens having an NA of 0.25 (10 x). The performance of the OCT system equipped with the proposed PCF lensed fiber is presented by showing the OCT images of a rat finger as a biological sample and a pearl as an in-depth sample.     

Compact multimodal adaptive-optics spectral-domain optical coherence tomography instrument for retinal imaging

We have developed a compact, multimodal instrument for simultaneous acquisition of en face quasi-confocal fundus images and adaptive-optics (AO) spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SDOCT) cross-sectional images. The optical system including all AO and SDOCT components occupies a 60x60 cm breadboard that can be readily transported for clinical applications. The AO component combines a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor and a microelectromechanical systems-based deformable mirror to sense and correct ocular aberrations at 15 Hz with a maximum stroke of 4 microm. A broadband superluminescent diode source provides 4 mum depth resolution for SDOCT imaging. In human volunteer testing, we observed up to an 8 dB increase in OCT signal and a corresponding lateral resolution of <10 microm as a result of AO correction.     

Common-path interferometer for frequency-domain optical coherence tomography

A Michelson-type spectral interferometer that uses a common beam path for the reference and the sample arms is described. This optical arrangement is more compact and stable than the more commonly used dual-arm interferometer and is well suited for frequency-domain optical coherence tomography of biological samples. With a 16-bit CCD camera, the instrument has sufficient dynamic range and resolution for imaging to depths of 2 mm in scattering biological materials. Images obtained with this spectral interferometer are presented, including cross-sectional images in a Xenopus laevis tadpole.     

Interferometer for calibration of graduated line scales with a moving CCD camera as a line detector

A new interferometer for calibration of graduated line scales is described. It uses a novel method for observation of the distance between the graduation lines. The line images are recorded by a moving microscope and a CCD camera. A frame-grabber unit is used to digitize the images. We calculated the position of the microscope at the moment of charging the video fields by the use of digitized interference and video-synchronization signals. For elimination of the effect of carriage rotations, the focus point of the microscope and the apex of the main-arm cube-corner reflector are adjusted to the same point. The measurement and the analysis processes are completely automated. The estimated overall uncertainty (1σ) for a 1-m Invar scale is 44 nm.     

Holographic Image Restoration by Using an Unconstrained Single Deblurring Filter

The unconstrained single deblurring filter for coherent optical restoration of blurred image is produced in a modified Rayleigh interferometer with blurred point spread function (PSF) h(x, y) and doubly blurred PSF h(x, y)=h(x, y)?h(x, y),? denoting convolution. The linear-motion blurred images and the defocusing blurred images are corrected with the present holographic filter, and it is shown that the restored images are significantly improved.     

Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared imaging of large areas using inverted prism crystals and combining imaging and mapping

Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FT-IR) imaging is a very useful tool for capturing chemical images of various materials due to the simple sample preparation and the ability to measure wet samples or samples in an aqueous environment. However, the size of the array detector used for image acquisition is often limited and there is usually a trade off between spatial resolution and the field of view (FOV). The combination of mapping and imaging can be used to acquire images with a larger FOV without sacrificing spatial resolution. Previous attempts have demonstrated this using an infrared microscope and a Germanium hemispherical ATR crystal to achieve images of up to 2.5 mm x 2.5 mm but with varying spatial resolution and depth of penetration across the imaged area. In this paper, we demonstrate a combination of mapping and imaging with a different approach using an external optics housing for large ATR accessories and inverted ATR prisms to achieve ATR-FT-IR images with a large FOV and reasonable spatial resolution. The results have shown that a FOV of 10 mm x 14 mm can be obtained with a spatial resolution of approximately 40-60 microm when using an accessory that gives no magnification. A FOV of 1.3 mm x 1.3 mm can be obtained with spatial resolution of approximately 15-20 microm when using a diamond ATR imaging accessory with 4x magnification. No significant change in image quality such as spatial resolution or depth of penetration has been observed across the whole FOV with this method and the measurement time was approximately 15 minutes for an image consisting of 16 image tiles.     

Development of a multi-Fourier-transform interferometer: imaging experiments in millimeter and submillimeter wave bands

We have developed a millimeter and submillimeter Michelson-type bolometric interferometer based on a Martin-Puplett-type Fourier-transform spectrometer named multi-Fourier-transform interferometer (MuFT). We have succeeded in proving that the MuFT is capable of performing broadband imaging observations as theoretically proposed by our previous paper (OHM) [Appl. Opt. 45, 2576 (2006)]. We succeeded in acquiring the mutual coherence signal for an extended source in broadband. By analyzing the obtained mutual coherence signal following the formula proposed in OHM, 2D source images for each wavenumber from 5 cm(-1) (150 GHz) to 35 cm(-1) (1.05 THz) with a wavenumber interval of 0.4 cm(-1) (12 GHz) were successfully extracted. The large dynamic range advantage of the MuFT proposed in OHM was confirmed experimentally.     

A variable lateral-shearing Sagnac interferometer with high numerical aperture for measuring the complex spatial coherence function of light

Abstract

We combine a telescopic imaging system with a common-path, lateral-shearing interferometer and use phase-shifting interferometry to measure the complex spatial coherence function (or mutual intensity) of a linearly-polarized optical field. Our telescopic design increases the numerical aperture of the system without distorting the shape of the wave front, and therefore without changing the phase difference between lateral positions in the optical field. Our method of generating lateral-sheared images introduces no additional astigmatism. To demonstrate the use of the interferometer we extract the information contained in the complex spatial coherence function to reconstruct the amplitude and phase of a coherent optical field, and we also show how the spatial coherence function evolves from a coherent field to a partially coherent one as light traverses a random multiple-scattering medium.     

Interferometer for optical coherence tomography

We describe a new interferometer setup for optical coherence tomography (OCT). The interferometer is based on a fiber arrangement similar to Young's two-pinhole interference experiment with spatial coherent and temporal incoherent light. Depth gating is achieved detection of the interference signal on a linear CCD array. Therefore no reference optical delay scanning is needed. The interference signal, the modulation of the signal, the axial resolution, and the depth range are derived theoretically and compared with experiments. The dynamic range of the setup is compared with OCT sensors in the time domain. To our knowledge, the first images of porcine brain and heart tissue and human skin are presented.     

Two-color medium-infrared scanning interferometer for the Frascati tokamak upgrade fusion test device

A scanning beam interferometer installed on the Frascati tokamak upgrade (FTU) experiment is presented. The scanning beam scheme combined with the small dimensions of the beams produces a system with very high spatial resolution: more than 30 adjacent (nonoverlapping) chords sample most of the plasma cross section. A good time resolution is achieved by the use of a proper scanning device, with a scanning frequency >or=8 kHz. Very fast events are measured by three additional fixed lines of sight providing a time resolution >or=100 kHz. The instrument is a two-color medium-infrared-compensated-type interferometer; two wavelengths (colors) are used to measure both the density and the mechanical vibrations of optical components. A CO2 laser (lambda=10.6 microm) is the main light source, and a CO laser (lambda=5.4 microm) is the compensation one. The optical scheme is a double pass Mach-Zehnder type. All the retroreflector mirrors are mounted directly on the FTU mechanical structure thanks to the compensation system that allows for large vibration amplitudes of optical components. Heterodyne detection at 30 and 40 MHz is obtained by frequency shifting the reference beams with two acousto-optic modulators (Bragg cells). Many features are implemented to achieve high measurement accuracy and reliability. A real-time system computes the integral density measured on one of the fixed lines of sight and provides an analog signal for density feedback control. The interferometer was used to measure density profiles both in medium-density discharges (n(e) approximately 10(20) m(-3)) and in high-density pellet injected discharges (n(e) approximately 7-8 x 10(20) m(-3)). The measurement error is approximately 2 x 10(18) m(-2) under optimal conditions but can be higher in some cases, mainly because of the large tilt of the retroreflector mirrors.     

Wideband design of nonreciprocal phase shift magneto-optical isolators using phase adjustment in Mach-Zehnder interferometers

A wideband design is proposed for nonreciprocal phase shift magneto-optical isolators based on Mach-Zehnder interferometers. The wavelength dependence of nonreciprocal phase difference between the backward waves propagating in two interferometer arms is compensated for by that of reciprocal phase difference. This is realized by introducing an appropriate phase bias in one of interferometer arms. Two design examples are presented with a backward loss of >30 dB in the wavelength range of 1.40-1.63 microm for a magnetic garnet waveguide isolator and of 1.485-1.630 microm for a Si-wire waveguide isolator.     

Transverse coherence measurement using a folded Michelson interferometer

The transverse coherence of a 1 ps pulsed laser beam was measured using a technique involving a modified Michelson interferometer and separate reference images. Using this technique, the transverse coherence of a selected plane in the laser beam was determined, in this case at the exit of a channel in a metal foil self-drilled by the laser. Images of each arm were used as references. Through this technique, it is possible to use the interference patterns produced with uneven intensity distributions and for pulsed lasers on a single-shot basis. The results of these measurements were then shown to be in agreement with those obtained using a Young's double-slit setup.     

Fundamental characteristics of a synthesized light source for optical coherence tomography

We describe the fundamental characteristics of a synthesized light source (SLS) consisting of two low-coherence light sources to enhance the spatial resolution for optical coherence tomography (OCT). The axial resolution of OCT is given by half the coherence length of the light source. We fabricated a SLS with a coherence length of 2.3 microm and a side-lobe intensity of 45% with an intensity ratio of LED1:LED2 = 1:0.5 by combining two light sources, LED1, with a central wavelength of 691 nm and a spectral bandwidth of 99 nm, and LED2, with a central wavelength of 882 nm and a spectral bandwidth of 76 nm. The coherence length of 2.3 microm was 56% of the shorter coherence length in the two LEDs, which indicates that the axial resolution is 1.2 microm. The lateral resolution was measured at less than 4.4 microm by use of the phase-shift method and with a test pattern as a sample. The measured rough surfaces of a coin are illustrated and discussed.     

High-spatial resolution mass spectrometric imaging of peptide and protein distributions on a surface

For the first time macromolecular ion microscope images have been recorded using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). Single-shot, mass-resolved images of the spatial distributions of intact peptide and protein ions over an area of 200 microm in diameter were obtained in less than 1 ms at a repetition rate of 12 Hz. The magnifying ion optics of the ion microscope allowed ion images to be obtained with a lateral resolution of 4 microm. These results prove the concept of high-resolution MALDI-MS imaging in microscope mode without the need for a tight laser focus and the accompanying sensitivity losses. The ion microscopy approach offers an improvement of several orders of magnitude in speed of acquisition compared to the conventional (microprobe) approach to MALDI-MS imaging.